The Superhero Of Aqua Man
The superhero that I have chosen is Aqua man I have chosen this superhero as it is something
different, unique and at the same time challenging. Aqua man has been an icon for over seventy
years. He is the king of seven seas and the reluctant ruler of Atlantis. Atlantis is the name of a
continent located in the North Atlantic Ocean and represents one of the earliest and most highly
advanced cultural societies on Earth. Aqua man holds his own against heroes like Superman and
Wonder Woman. Aqua man cast out from Atlantis as a baby, he grew up on land thinking that he was
a normal human being. However, after he started getting older and older and started becoming
mature, Atlantis returned clamming aqua man as their rightful king. Caught ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The reason we cannot breathe liquid water is because the oxygen we use to make the water is
guaranteed to two hydrogen atoms, and we cannot breathe the resultant liquid. The oxygen is
unusable to our lungs in this form. Humans cannot breathe because our lungs do not have enough
surface area to absorb enough oxygen form water, and the coating in our lungs is modified to handle
air rather than water. There have been experiments with humans breathing other liquids like
fluorocarbons. A fluorocarbon is a compound formed by replacing one or more of the hydrogen
atoms in a hydrocarbon with fluorine atoms. Fluorocarbons can dissolve enough oxygen and our
lungs can draw the oxygen out. Fish breathe oxygen dissolved in water with the help of their gills.
Fish have gills and why this works is because fishes are cold blooded and this reduces oxygen loads.
Warm–blooded animals like whales breathe air just as we humans do, as it is hard to extract enough
oxygen using their gills.
The organelles that have been put into Aqua man from the human cell are Nucleus, Nucleolus,
Ribosome, Mitochondria, Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum,
Cytoplasm, Lysosome, and Cell Membrane. Each of these have their own function and are part of
different sections of the cell. The Nucleus is Master control of the cell. It contains genes, collections
of DNA, which determines every aspect of human anatomy and physiology. This
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Normal Cellular Location Of The Crusoe1
Assignment – Michael Layland – C1476301 – I1417
Q1: What does the comparison of the supernatant fraction between the experimental and control
samples prove, regarding the normal cellular location of the CRUSOE1? [2 marks]
A1: Triton X–100 is a detergent in laboratory practice and is used to permeabalize unfixed
eukaryotic cell membranes and aids in solubilizing membranous proteins. The addition of the
substance Triton X–100 would cause the majority of the cell membranes to become permeable thus
allowing contents of the eukaryotic cell to leave via simple diffusion hence the large concentration
of radioactive prominence to be situated in the supernatant fraction. Again, the detergent property of
Triton X–100 is further reinforced by the fact that it causes the majority of all radioactive sulphur to
be situated in the supernatant. Without the addition of Triton X–100 the graph displays the greatest
quantity of radioactive sulphur to be situated in fraction 3 of which a majority of "small organelles"
are situated ranging from a diameter 0.2 to 1.5 μm. It is due to this fact that one can assume the
normal cellular location of the CRUSOE1 protein to be situated in normal cellular location in
organelles of the previously stated diameter and not it the cytoplasmic structure as the addition of
Triton X–100 would assume.
Q2: Professor Holton's team speculate that CRUSOE1 is located predominantly in the Lysosomes of
the cell. Is this a reasonable assumption to make, and why? [4

Plant Cells : Occasion Homework
Plant Cells: Occasion Homework. 9/4/16
Plants have numerous cells inside them. They all have distinctive part and capacities. Together they
all out to make the plant empower itself to survive. Inside a plant are its cells. Inside a cell are its
organelles. These organelles are called cell organelles which are little individual parts of a phone
which complete distinctive particular capacities. There are a vast variety of different
Golgi Mechanical assembly: An arrangement (stack) of levelled, film bound sacs (saccules) required
in the capacity, alteration and emission of proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids bound to leave the cell
(extracellular) and for use inside the cell (intracellular). The Golgi device is plentiful in secretory ...
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Bigger particles (counting microscopic organisms) enter extraordinary white platelets (phagocytes)
through a type of endocytosis called phagocytosis. The Single adaptable cell is a unicellular protist
that ingests sustenance (counting algal cells) by phagocytosis.
Lysosome: A film bound organelle containing hydrolytic (digestive) catalysts. Lysosomes begin as
layer bound vesicles (called Golgi vesicles) that bud from the Golgi mechanical assembly. They are
basically required with intracellular processing. Lysosomes wire with vesicles (little vacuoles)
framed by endocytosis. The substance of these vesicles are processed by lysosomal chemicals. Auto
absorption by lysosomes likewise happens amid embryonic improvement. The fingers of a human
developing life are webbed at first, however are isolated from each other by lysosomal catalysts.
Cells in the tail of a tadpole are processed by lysosomal compounds amid the continuous move into
a frog.
Peroxisome: A layer bound organelle that contains particular catalysts imported from the cytoplasm
(cytosol). For instance, certain peroxisomes contain the compound catalase which quickly separates
dangerous hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. This response can be effectively exhibited by
pouring some hydrogen peroxide on crude meat or an open injury.
Glycolysis: An anaerobic oxidation pathway outside of the mitochondria in which glucose is

Prokaryotic Vs Eukaryotic Essay
Prokaryotic are organisms whose DNA is not confined within a membrane–enclosed nucleus.
Prokaryotic organisms are single, but some prokaryotic organisms are multicellular. Eukaryotes are
organisms who cells are organized into complex structures by internal membranes and a
cytoskeleton. (Cundy, 2012) The most characteristic membrane bound structure is the nucleus.
Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are eukaryotic. Prokaryotic organisms are typically between 0.1
to 5.0 um in size while Eukaryotic organisms are between 5–10 um. Prokaryotic organisms have
pili, cytosol, ribosomes, capsule, cell wall, plasma membrane, DNA, and chromosome also known
as plasmids. (Cundy, 2012) They do not have a nucleus, lysosomes, microtubules, endoplasmic
reticulum, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is what allows prokaryotes to attach to other surfaces. Cytosol is a water like fluid found in the
cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus. The cell wall is made
of polysaccharides just outside the plasma membrane and its made of cellulose. (Cundy, 2012) The
plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell with a layer made of phospholipids. DNA is a
double polymer of nucleotides that store genetic information. DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic
Acid with a phosphate group of four nitrogenous bases which are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and
thymine. The largest organelle is the nucleus. The nucleus contains DNA. The mitochondria have a
double membrane and it is known for supplying energy to the cell. Ribosomes produce proteins.
These ribosomes can be found in the cytosol of cells. The nucleolus is what makes ribosomes and
RNA. Lysosomes have digestive enzymes. The endoplasmic reticulum is an inner membrane system
that makes some proteins. (Cundy, 2012) There are two endoplasmic reticulum, one is rough and the
other is smooth. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes on it while the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes on them. The Golgi apparatus prepares proteins to
be taken out of the cell. The vacuole is storage for water and other nutrients a call may need and this
is most commonly found in plant cells. The cytoskeleton shapes the cell wall and consists of protein

The Smooth Er's Membrane
The smooth ER does not have any ribosomes on it's membrane. It's functions can vary depending on
the differences of the cell it is located in. The smooth ER makes lipids, breaks down carbohydrates,
and detoxifies substances that may be harmful to the cell.
The rough ER appears rough on a microscope because it's surface is covered with small ribosomes.
The ribosomes synthesize proteins, and the membrane keeps those proteins separate from the rest of
the cell. In addition to making and storing proteins, it also creates it's own proteins and
phospholipids to put in it's membrane. Portions of the rough ER's membrane are closed to form
sealed sacs called transport vesicles. These vesicles carry the proteins to the Golgi apparatus.
The endoplasmic

The Microstructure of a Typical Animal Cell Essay
Unit 13, task 1.
P1 – Describe the microstructure of a typical animal cell and the functions of the main cell
components. A typical animal cell is seen as a tiny, three dimensional sac which is in fact made up
of many components, each as important as the other. The microstructure of an animal cell was in
fact uncovered mainly through the use of both cell fractionation and electron microscopy. Each main
component has its own, individual function which helps a cell to function and maintains the cell
membrane. The components that I will be describing include the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm,
mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi bodies, centrioles, endoplasmic reticulum (both smooth and rough)
and ribosomes.
The cell membrane – The cell ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER) – The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is very similar
in terms of structure and chemically to the rough endoplasmic reticulum with the exception of not
being able to attach ribosomes like the rough ER can. The smooth ER has more than just one main
function and in simple terms these are control of calcium release within the muscle cells, breakdown
of lipid soluble toxins in the liver and lipid steroid hormone synthesis. It primarily makes and
process fat within a typical animal cell. The structure of the smooth ER is usually said to be tubular
rather than sheet like and it may be separate from the rough ER or in some cases may in fact be an
extension of it. The smooth ER is said to be most common in cells that metabolise fat and it is a
continuation of the outer nuclear membrane of a cell. It is made up of a vast network of membrane
which is usually covered in tubules and vesicles. Depending on the type of cells, the amount of
rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum that is present within it varies somewhat greatly.
Endoplasmic means inside of the cytoplasm and the term reticulum means network. Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER) – The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered in
ribosomes which are

Unit 5 P1 the Functions of the Main Cell Components of the...
In this report i will be writing brief description on the functions of the main cell components of the
body cell.
The cell membrane : is something that lets some things in and some things out of the cell. It is an
outer cover for the cell. If the cell membrane was non existences the cell would spill all over the
place. Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances
into the cell, while keeping other substances out. It is composed of a thin, double–layered sheet of
lipids, around the Cell and is a protective membrane layer around every Cell.
Nucleus [pic]
The nucleus is the control centre of a cell. It contains genetic material such as DNA and controls the
cell's growth and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It acts as a storage organelle. It is important in the creation and storage of steroids. It also stores ions
in solution that the cell may need at a later time. Steroids are a type of ringed organic molecule used
for many purposes in an organism. They are not always about building muscle mass like a weight
lifter. The ion storage is important because sometimes a cell needs ions fast. It might not want to
search the environment for ions, so it is easier to have them stored in a pack for easy use.
Rough ER – looks rough on the surface because it is stubbed with very small organelles called
ribosomes. Ribosomes are made of RNA and protein and are the site of protein synthesis. They are
very important in the synthesis and packaging of proteins. Some of those proteins might be used in
the cell and some are sent out. The ribosomes are attached to the membrane of the ER. As the
ribosomes builds the amino acid chain, the chain is pushed into the ER. When the protein is
complete, the rough ER pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small membrane bubble, can move to
the cell membrane or the Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus[pic]
The function of the Golgi apparatus is to modify, sort, and package proteins and other materials
from the endoplasmic reticulum for storage in the cell or secretion outside the cell.
Lysosome [pic]
Lysosomes are single, membrane–bound sacs that contain

Essay on Cells and their parts
Cells are some of the smallest organisms around. All living things consist of cells, and yet they are
invisible to the naked eye. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life. Cells are made
up of many different parts which allow them to function properly.
All cells are separated from their surrounding by a cell membrane. The cell membrane regulates
what enters and leaves the cell and also aids in the protection and support of the cell. A cell
membrane is similar to the walls surrounding your house.
In plants the cell membrane is surrounded by a cell wall. The cell wall is outside the cell membrane,
and its purpose is to help the membrane protect and support the cell. Since the cell wall is very
porous, water, oxygen, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Chromosomes contain the genetic information that must be passed to each new generation of cells.
Chromosomes are what you pass on to your children to make them who they are, it's the DNA of a
cell.
The cytoplasm is the area between the nucleus and the cell membrane. The cytoplasm contains
many important structures. This area is basically the main place where you will find structures that
help the cells stay alive.
Mitochondrion is an importance structure that lies in the cytoplasm area. Mitochondrion is the plural
word for mitochondria, which is the key organelle that converts energy from one form to another.
Mitochondria changes the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient
for the cell to use. The mitochondrion contains two special membranes. The outer membrane
surrounds the organelle, and the inner membrane has many folds that increase the surface area of the
mitochondrion.
Ribosomes are the structures in which proteins are made. Cells that are active in protein synthesis
are often crowded with ribosomes. Ribosomes are composed of RNA and protein. Some ribosomes
are attached to the membranes, and some are free in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are among the
smallest of organelles. They are no larger than 25 nanometers in diameter. A nanometer is equal to
one billionth of a meter.
Many cells are filled with a complex network of tube like things known as the endoplasmic
reticulum. The endoplasmic

Types Of Cells And Prokaryote And Eukaryote
M1
There are two types of cells; Prokaryote and Eukaryote. They have many differences including their
structures and functions. The main difference being that a Eukaryote cell has an organised nucleus
with a nuclear envelope, whereas a prokaryote cell does not have a nucleus at all.
Eukaryotes are much more complex than a prokaryote cell. They have multiple organelles with
many different functions. Eukaryotic cells are bigger in size than Prokaryotic cells. Some examples
of eukaryotic cells are: animals, plants, fungi etc. Most eukaryotic cells are multi–cellular. All
eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, genetic material, a plasma membrane, ribosomes and a cytoplasm.
They also have membrane–bound structures called organelles.
Eukaryotic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cytoplasm This is a gel–like substance that contains mostly water as well as nutrients, enzymes,
wastes and gases. They carry out functions for growth, metabolism and replication. Contains cell
structures e.g. ribosomes.
Nucleus This is where the genetic information is contained in the form of chromatin. It controls the
cell's growth and reproduction making it the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus is
enclosed by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The membrane has pores to allow
substances into and out of the nucleus.
Nucleolus This is a dense region of the nucleus where RNA is made as well as Ribosomes. It has no
membrane, it sits in the nucleus. The primary function is to assemble ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum that differ in both structure
and function; Rough and Smooth. Both endoplasmic reticulum consist of flattened membrane bound
sacs called cisternae. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered with ribosomes and Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes. The Rough ER has the job of transporting proteins that
were made on the attached ribosomes. Whereas the Smooth ER is where lipid synthesis takes place.
(Kennedy, 2008)
Golgi apparatus It has a structure of flattened membranous sacs. The proteins made at ribosomes are
modified and packaged into vesicles. It modifies proteins. It then takes the molecules and

Cystic Fibrosis Analysis
To understand the effects that Cystic Fibrosis has, it is important to discuss CFTR synthesis and
trafficking. Mutations in the CFTR results in protein misfolding, causing a defect in cellular
processing and trafficking that targets the protein for degradation and reduces the quantity of CFTR
at the cell surface [56]. In order for the CFTR to function correctly, then it must be synthesized,
folded, and transported to the apical membrane of the cell without problem. The CFTR passes
through quality control systems to get rid of misfolded proteins that would not function properly or
that could become damaged [16]. It is apparent that only 33% of CFTR folds correctly and is
allowed to leave the endoplasmic reticulum [8]. The nucleus is the site ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
One system detects defects in the cytosolic parts of the CFTR while the other detects defects within
the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. It is apparent that ubiquitylating proteins work with specific
factors in order to detect misfolding. For example, Hsp70 detects mutations in the cytosolic regions
of the CFTR. It is suspected that Hsp70 keeps the CFTR soluble until the E3 ligase CHIP binds with
it. The complex that forms between these two redirects the CFTR to the degradation pathway.
Derlin–1 is involved with detecting defects in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and is involved
in the retro–translocation of CFTR from the endoplasmic reticulum so that it can be send to the
proteasome for degradation [20]. If the CFTR protein is folded correctly within the endoplasmic
reticulum, then it is sent to the Golgi apparatus. The coat protein complex II (COPII), which is
found within the ER membrane, helps to maintain the correct CFTR structure and location,
conformation, and protein–protein interactions as this occurs. Final processing for the CFTR is
carried out within the Golgi, as the CFTR replaces a mannose–enriched side chain with a mature
complex oligosaccharide side chain. After this is completed, the CFTR is moved to the apical
membrane where it has a half–life of 12 to 24 hours. If a CFTR is functioning poorly within the
membrane, then it can be recognized by Hsc70 and then

Taking a Look at Niemann-Pick Disease
Niemann–Pick disease an inherited condition involving lipid metabolism, which is the breakdown,
transport, and use of fats and cholesterol in the body is the condition in which abnormal lipid
metabolism causes harmful amounts of lipid to accumulate in parts of the body. There are 3 forms of
this disease: Type A, B, and C. The general focus of this paper will be Type C. Niemann–Pick's
disease Type C (NPC) is disease in which unesterified cholesterol and other lipids accumulate in late
endosomes/lysosomes (LE/L) of all cells and tissues. Resulting in excessive amounts of cholesterol
accumulation within the liver and spleen and excessive amounts of other lipids accumulating in the
brain. The cause of NPC is quite distinct from A & B whose patients have defects in their lysosomal
acid sphingomyelinase gene (3). On the contrary, NPC is a recessive, autosomal disorder that affects
around 1 in 150,000 births and causes premature death due to relentless neurodegeneration as well
as lung and liver dysfunction (4,5). NPC can further be divided into two subgroups known as C1
and C2, which are each, caused by a different gene mutation. One of the many interesting features of
this disease is that symptoms may appear as early as childhood or as late as adulthood. The
symptoms that follow this disease are the inability to move ones eyes up and down, enlarged liver,
enlarged spleen, or jaundice in young children. But it is common for only one or two symptoms to
appear in the early

The Structure Of Eukaryotic Cells
Describe the Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
You can identify a eukaryotic cell by its encased nucleus, containing the majority of its DNA and
organelles surrounded by a membrane. Plant and Animal cells have double membranes and a housed
nucleus therefore they are eukaryotic cells; organisms which do not contain a double membrane and
an encased nucleus are known as prokaryotes, e.g. bacteria. The eukaryotic cell is made up of many
membrane bound organelles which all have a specific function.
Nucleus
The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell holds the majority of the cells DNA material, the nucleus is often
referred to as the 'control centre' of the cell as it uses the DNA to direct all other activities within the
cell.
The nucleus is a round, dense and the largest of the cells organelles, making it the easiest organelle
to identify. The nucleus needs a protective membrane in order to keep the cytoplasm separate from
the genetic material it holds.
One of the main functions of the nucleus is that it is responsible for protein synthesis, which is vital
for the process of life continuing and the production of hereditary characteristics within an
organism.
Summary of Protein Synthesis DNA is used indirectly as it must stay complete as a permanent
stockpile of genetic information. Encoded DNA within the nucleus is transported to small molecules
of nucleic acid named messenger RNA (mRNA) mRNA takes the genetic information to ribosomes
free in the

Organisms Maintain Protein Fidelity And The Body (...
Proteostasis is the way that organisms maintain protein fidelity in the body(Labbadia et al., 2015). It
consists of multiple different mechanisms which help to coordinate protein synthesis, folding,
disaggregation, and degradation(Labbadia et al., 2015). The multiple mechanisms that help to
achieve proteostasis make up a system called the proteostasis network. This network incorporates all
of the processes of proteostasis, including all machinery including translation, molecular
chaperones, co–chaperones, the ubiquitin–proteome system, and the autophagy system(Labbadia et
al., 2015). The unfolded protein response in the cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, and
mitochondria are not considered to be a direct part of the proteostasis network, however.
Chaperones are one of the ways that the body can help to regulate the folding of proteins.
Chaperones can work alone or with cochaperones in order to assist with the folding, disaggregation,
degradation, and trafficking within the cell(Labbadia et al., 2015). Because chaperones are so
important for the cell's existence, expression of chaperones is often increased with cellular stress.
The unfolded protein response (UPR) in another process that cells undergo to make sure that
proteins are folded correctly. This process can take place in the cytoplasm, the endoplasmic
reticulum, and the mitochondria. If there is a buildup of unfolded proteins in the cell, the unfolded
protein response kicks in and activates intracellular signal

Cell As A System Analysis
Spenser Grasse
1/20/16
Block A
Cell As A System Essay Imagine being able to see the inside of your body at action, the blood
flowing through your body, or even your heart beating. If you could, what would you compare their
jobs to? A supermarket? How about a factory? There are so many things you could compare them to,
like a car they all have to work together in order for the vehicle to run.
What i'm going to compare their jobs to is a supermarket, Hannaford. Like the nucleolus, the CEO is
the big rig of the company. He makes sure that everything is running properly, and smoothly. He
also controls the jobs within the company and makes sure people are executing their jobs. He also
tells the people incorporate what they should do which then ... Show more content on
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They all do the same job as one another, which can keep the supermarket running smoothly or
keeping the body alive. Now next time you go into a factory or supermarket just think of how the
cells in your body are doing exactly what the equipment in the store does

The Structures Within An Animal Cell
The structures within an animal cell are described as follows:
Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane:
This is a thin membranous layer which surrounds the cell and acts as a barrier, it works to separate
the contents within the cell from its external environment as well as from other cells.
It 's structure is important as it provides structural support and protection of components within it as
is is made up of a double membrane layer or phospholipid bilayer. It works likes a gatekeeper of
pathway so allowing certain or selected molecules to pass through and exit the cell, such as water,
nutrients and waste substances.
Cytoplasm:
This is a jelly–like and clear fluid which is present within surrounding all the internal organelles.
This ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is known to be the site of aerobic respiration. (Pickering, 1994).
Ribosomes:
This organelle is small round organelles and are not made of membrane and are made up of protein
and RNA. This is an important organelle as the cell requires this to make proteins.
The proteins produced are mainly to be used within the cell and the enzyme which are products by
proteins help in speeding up certain biological processes.
They are found within the cell, either free in the cytoplasm or they can be attached to the
Endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum:
This organelle is a network of membranes which are either attached to the nucleus or found
throughout the cytoplasm.
It is a folded membrane which gives the appearance of tubes if interconnected sheets.
These membranes may vary from cell to cell depending of the function and size of particular cells.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:

This is known as such due to the ribosomes which are attached to the surface of the Endoplasmic
reticulum and gives it the appearance of bumpy looking membranes.
It can also be attached to the nuclear envelope which is found surrounding the nucleus.
This is the site of protein production due to the ribosomes attached to the surface of the
Endoplasmic reticulum.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
These organelles have the appearance of tubules or a series of smooth sheets which do not have
ribosomes attached to the surface. It is important as it it the organelle which

Human Physiology : Cells And Tissues
UNIT 4: HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
CELLS AND TISSUES
This is a diagram of an animal cell with all its key components labelled
The structures within an animal cell are described as follows:
Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane:
This is a thin membranous layer which surrounds the cell and acts as a barrier, it works to separate
the contents within the cell from its external environment as well as from other cells.
It 's structure is important as it provides structural support and protection of components within it as
it is made up of a double membrane layer or phospholipid bilayer. It works likes a gatekeeper or
pathway so allowing certain or selected molecules to pass through and exit the cell, such as water,
nutrients and waste substances.
Cytoplasm:
This is a jelly–like and clear fluid which is present within the cell surrounding all the internal
organelles.
This fluid is like water but thicker because it contains strands of proteins which help to hold the cell
organelles in place and helps to protect any damage from internal and external components as well
as for biochemical reactions.
Mitochondria:
This organelle is made up of two membranes, the outer membrane which is it 's outer protective
layer and the inner membrane which is highly folded and coiled and works to make it more efficient
by increasing the surface area in a small space, this layered structure is known as cristae. The fluid
or solution which is contained within

Nobel Prize Awarded to Randy W. Schekman, James E....
Each year, The Nobel Assembly in Karolinska Institutet distributes various Noble Prizes to
recipients who have demonstrated a monumental contribution to the sciences. In 2013, the 50
professors that constitute the Nobel Assembly awarded The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
to Randy W. Schekman, James E. Rothman, and Thomas C. Südhof for their contribution in
uncovering the details of vesicle transport within a cell. More specifically, these scientists have
elaborated on the knowledge of how cargo is delivered to the correct place within a eukaryotic cell
at the correct time.
The compartmentalized eukaryotic cell must retain the ability to ensure that correct vesicles are
shipped to the required destination at appropriate times. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In these mutant yeast cells, the typical vesicle transport system was abnormal, which allowed
detection of specific genes that were related to these mutations. These screenings eventually led to
the identification of twenty–three separate genes that could be classified into three groups based on
their effects on membranes involved in traffic. These membranes include the endoplasmic reticulum,
the Golgi Apparatus, and the plasma membrane (Novick and Schekman, 1979).
James Rothman dissected the transport mechanism by purifying and identifying proteins used in
transport. The NSF, SNAP and SNARE proteins act as docking sites to enable vesicles to fuse to
specific target membranes. This explains the precision of transport; the proteins only combined with
certain cargo. The ability to purify the NSF protein was made possible by the identification of the
VSV–G protein. The VSV–G protein is labeled by a sugar when it comes in contact with the Golgi
Apparatus, simplifying documentation. Genes code for proteins used in fusion, exemplified by how
the sec18 gene relates to NSF. Sec17 relates to the SNAP protein in a similar manner. The discovery
of the SNAP protein allowed for the revelation of SNARE proteins found in brain tissue. SNARE
proteins are a gateway to the fusion and docking of vesicles in a very specific manner: only an
exclusive number of target SNAREs (t–SNAREs) would bind to specific vesicle SNAREs, or v–
SNAREs

Structure and Function of Eukaryotic Cell Organelles
Structure and Function of Eukaryotic Cell Organelles
What are eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells
The Nucleus.
Nearly all animal cells have a nucleus, with the only exception being the red blood cell. The nucleus
has two major functions, which are housing the DNA and controlling the cell's activities. In the
centre of the nucleus is the nucleolus. This doesn't have a membrane, but holds itself together. In the
nucleolus, ribosomes are created through the mixture of RNA and proteins. These proteins are
originally found in the cytoplasm, outside the nucleus, but they travel through the pores in the
nuclear envelope, through the chromatin and into the nucleolus. The structure of the nucleolus
allows easy ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The body has two faces, the cis face which fuses with incoming transport vesicles, and the trans face
which excretes the secretory vesicles. The cis face fuses with vesicles coming from the ER
effectively from many directions due to its convex shape, whereas the concave trans face can direct
the secretory vesicles to their destination. When fusing with the cis face, the transport vesicles
release their proteins to be absorbed for modification. Each cisternal layer of the Golgi body holds
different enzymes which each modify the passing proteins in separate ways. Between the layers the
proteins are moved through the gaps by small vesicles. When a protein has been modified correctly,
it leaves the Golgi body via secretory vesicles which then carry the modified proteins to the cell
membrane or another organelle. The proteins that are transported to the cell membrane are either
excreted from the cell, or absorbed into the membrane to aid with its function. Some of the secretory
vesicles which hold hydrolytic enzymes stay within the cytoplasm and function as lysosomes.
Lysosomes.
Lysosomes are specialized vesicles that are created by the Golgi body. Their role is to digest any
worn out, excess or unwanted bodies within the cell. This could include bacteria or viruses as well
as mitochondria which are no longer effective. To do this they contain an

discussion 1 Essay
Chapter 1: Cell Pathology
1–1
Which of the following accounts for differences in cells in a human body?
Differences in chromatin
Differences in chromosomes
Differential content of DNA
Differential expression of genes
1–2
Which of the following structures is not normally found in the cytoplasm of a resting cell?
DNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
1–3
Which of the following cytoplasmic organelles are not found in most all nucleated cells?
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
Myofilaments
1–4
Which of the following is the primary purpose of mitochondria?
Maintenance of cell shape
Modification of proteins
Production of energy
Replication of cellular structures
1 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Autocrine
Endocrine
Exocrine
Paracrine

1–11
Which of the following best accounts for cellular swelling during reversible cellular injury occurring
by transient hypoxia?
The extra oxygen directly damages the plasma membrane, allowing in water
The extra oxygen overwhelms the Na+/K+ ATPase
The lack of oxygen results in decreased energy and shutdown of the Na+/K+ ATPase
The lack of oxygen directly destabilizes the plasma membrane, allowing in water
3
1–12
Which of the following is NOT associated with reversible cellular injury?
Cellular swelling
Decreased energy production
Increased autophagy
Increased protein synthesis Decreased protein synthesis NOT
"increased" pg. 8
1–13
A cell is subject to hypoxic conditions for 20 minutes, then observed under the microscope. The
nucleus has become shrunken, with marked condensation of the chromatin. This nuclear change is
best described as which of the following?
Autophagy
Karyolysis
Karyorrhexis
Pyknosis
1–14
Which of the following is NOT a key factor in determining if a cell will be reversibly or irreversibly
damaged during hypoxia?
Cellular location
Cellular type
Degree of hypoxia
Hypoxia duration
1–15
Which of the following is most directly responsible for postperfusion injury to cells?
Formation of oxygen radicals
Hyperfunctioning of Na+/K+ ATPase
Overproduction of catalase
Shrinkage of cellular membranes
4
1–16
A new drug, Drug X, is

Organelles In Animal Cells Essay
Organelles are the internal structures of the cell that are important for the cell to survive. Each
organelle has a specific function for the cell. The types of organelles in the cell can be different from
each other depending on the type of cell. Plant cells and animal cells both have a cytoskeleton,
endoplasmic reticulum (smooth and rough), golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, nucleus, plasma
membrane, and ribosomes. Animal and plant cells also have vacuoles, but they are rarely found in
animal cells. Vacuoles in animal cells are very small compared to the vacuoles in plant cells.
Lysosomes are also rarely found in plant cells but mostly found in animal cells. The cytoplasm is a
semifluid in the plasma membrane. It is in all eukaryotic cells. In prokaryotes, this is where the
chemical processes of the cell take place. In eukaryotic cells, this is where organelles perform their
functions. Cellular respiration also takes place here. One of stages of cellular respiration is
glycolysis. Glycolysis is when glucose breaks down to form two pyruvates and 4 ATP. Its net result
of 2 ATP is important for another process called the Krebs Cycle. This process is important because
it begins cellular respiration. The cytoplasm also gives the cell its shape; without it, the cell would
be "deflated" and substances would not be able to move throughout the cell. Organelles would have
difficulty functioning too. It has been misunderstood that organelles float freely in the cytoplasm
even

Eukaryotic Cells And Its Functions
"Eukaryotic cells are complex and include all animal and plant cells. Prokaryotic cells are smaller
and simpler, e.g. Bacteria" – (AQA 2008)
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane–bound organelles, whereas prokaryotic cells do not contain
these.
Although both of these cells contain DNA, only eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus. The nucleus is
the largest organelle, surrounded by a double membrane (nuclear envelope) containing lots of pores.
The nuclear membrane protects contents of the nucleus and controls the transport of substances in
and out. The nucleus contains linear DNA in chromatin which protects the DNA from damage.
Chromatin is formed of DNA which controls the activities of the cell. The nucleus often contains a
structure called the nucleolus. This structure produces ribosomes which enter the cytoplasm in the
cell through the nuclear pores, as well as transcribing DNA into RNA.
Prokaryotic cells do not contain nuclei. Instead of having a nucleus to carry the DNA, these cells
contain plasmids with circular DNA, as well as having most of the DNA float freely inside the
cytoplasm. The plasmids carry the information necessary to keep the cell alive. For example
including genes that make the bacteria cell resistant to antibiotics.
Both cells transcribe DNA into RNA in order to translate RNA and produce proteins on ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum is present in eukaryotic cells. There are two types of ER: Smooth and
rough. "This organelle is formed of a network of

Why Do Vesicles Enter A Cell
"The secretory vesicles store molecules and proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi
apparatus until the cell is ready to release them. "
Some vesicles enter the cell membrane whereas some don't. Until the cell signal is released the
vesicles enter the cell membrane. The vesicle structure is round and hollow.
Rough and smooth E.R–
Plant cells and animal cells contain an organelle called the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum. "The
role of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is to make cellular products like hormones and lipids."
This is then shared to the cell. Calcium ions are also released from the smooth ER as well as
processing toxins. The difference between a smooth ER and a rough ER is that the rough
endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes for protein synthesis on its surface.
Rough endoplasmic Reticulum – the rough endoplasmic reticulum is where the secretory proteins
and membranes are manufactured. "The way the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cell is protected from its surrounding by the cell membrane. Another function of the cell
membrane is that it controls the movement of substances in and out of the cells and organelles. This
makes it selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. The role of the cell membrane is to
keep up a selectively permeable barrier. It also helps the organelle to be structural by keeping all its
content together. It also allows communication between another cell. Another role the cell
membrane has is that it recognises other external substances and allows mobility in some organisms.
Chemical reactions can take place on the cell membrane site. The structure of a cell membrane is
that it has a fluid mosaic. This suggests it is made up of many different types pf molecules and is
also flexible. The cell membranes basic structure is formed by phospholipids called the lipid bilayer.
Cholesterol molecules are scattered in the lipid bilayer, which helps keep the membrane fluid

Long And Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cells can be traced back to the basic structure of life. Cells make up all organisms such as, plants,
the human body and fungi. There are different types of cells. The thing that differentiates Eukaryotic
cells, which are animal and plant cells from Prokaryotic cells is the membranous organelles that are
in the cytoplasm and chromosome proteins. The Eukaryotic cell nucleus contains most of the genetic
material and controls all activity. mRNA translation happens in the ribosomes which carries out
protein synthesis of the cell, while DNA replication occurs at the nucleus. Ribosomes are critical for
protein assembly which is important for cellular functions. Also, there is endoplasmic reticulum, it
has 2 type: rough and smooth. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for metabolic processes
and lipid synthesis. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cell walls and cell membranes are responsible for regulating the entering and exiting of particles
and substance which maintains internal balance. The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting
vesicles delivered from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Chloroplasts are found in plant cells
only and utilize sunlight to create energy using a method called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is
when plants use water, sunlight and carbon dioxide to create energy in the form of glucose for plant
cells. Mitochondria are in both animal and plant cells. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular
respiration that creates ATP used by the cell as energy. Lysosomes are digestive organelles which
break down macromolecules in the cell through hydrolysis. In order for a cell to survive it needs
particular isolation from its environment, this is done via the plasma membrane, energy through ATP
and cellular respiration. The cell membrane is made up of the phospholipid

Endoplasmic Reticulum ( Er ) Stress Response
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response may be mediated by HRV16 nonstructural proteins 2B,
which share similar characteristics to CVB3 2B. To understand whether HRV16 2B induces an ER
stress response, a HRV16 2B fusion protein with GFP were generated and its effects on ATF6a
(activating transcription factor 6a), IRE1 (Inositol–requiring enzyme 1), and PERK (PKR–like ER
protein kinas) expression in BHK cells were determined. The results showed that HRV16 2B
induced significantly high expression of glucose–regulated protein 78, and activated ATF4 and
ATF6 in a time–dependent manner. HRV16 2B also significantly activated the PERK–eIF2α
pathway with marked increased in expression of p–PERK, p–eIF2α, and CHOP. Additionally,
HRV16 2B decreased the expression of p–IRE1 and ATF6 p50. These results demonstrated for the
first time that the PERK–eIF2α signaling pathway, but not IRE1 and ATF6, mediates ER stress in
BHK cells.
Keywords: HRV16, 2B protein, Endoplasmic reticulum stress, PERK Introduction
Human rhinovirus (HRV) infections are major risk factors for asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) [1–4]. The airway epithelial cell is the dominant site of HRV infections
in vivo [5,6], and both upper and lower airway epithelial cells are infected at a similar frequency [7].
Non–enveloped rhinovirus belonging to the Picornaviridae family is spherical in shape, with a
diameter ranging from 28 nm to 30 nm. The viral genome contains a single open reading

Squamous Epithelium Cell Experiment
In this experiment, we examined a Squamous epithelium cell from a Human cheek. This can be
observed under a microscope; stained or unstained. We also observed an Onion Cell stained with
iodine under the microscope.
There are Eukaryotic cells and Prokaryotic cells. Human cheek cells are Eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells mean 'True Nucleus ' and Prokaryotic Cells mean 'Before Nucleus '. Eukaryotic
cells contain membrane–bound organelles. These organelles include the Nucleus, Nucleolus, Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum (dotted with Ribosome 's), Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria,
Golgi Apparatus, and Lysosomes. These organelles play an important part in a Eukaryote cell. The
Nucleus contains the Nucleolus, chromatin and chromosomes. The Nucleus is surrounded by a
Nucleus Envelope and contains all the chromosomes and the genetic material needed to make
proteins and needed to control the cell. The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum have Ribosome 's dotted
on them where protein synthesis takes place. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum keep the protein
together and transport proteins that are made at the ribosome 's. Mitochondria is where aerobic
respiration takes place and where energy is produced. Golgi Apparatus is where proteins are
modified and Lysosomes are small vesicles that contain digestive enzymes. All these organelles tend
to be present in a Eukaryote cell. All the cell content is in the Cytoplasm. (Boyle, Senior 2002, pp.
6–17)
Whereas a Prokaryote cell ( 'Before

The Cell : Transport Mechanisms And Cell Permeability
The Cell: Transport Mechanisms and Cell Permeability
Hunter Dockery
Biology 2101
Derek Draper
September 15, 2016
Introduction
Cells are a highly complex entity and is both structurally and functionally the basic unit of all living
things. Cells are an important and vital part in order to sustain life. Cells are highly diverse and their
specific roles are dependent on shape and internal composition. Cells are what carry out functions to
promote life, including: reproduction, nutrient digestion, and metabolism. The cell has many
components including the nucleus, cytoplasm, many organelles, and a plasma membrane. The
nucleus contains all of the genetic material and genes, which are found in the DNA. The nucleus is
the control center of the cell as it is key for cell reproduction. The nucleus is surrounded in a
membrane called the nuclear envelope for protection and regulation of materials in and out of the
nucleus. Cytoplasm is what all of the cell contents is referred to outside of the nucleus. This includes
all the high specific metabolic machinery called organelles. A list of organelles include: Ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and centrioles.
Ribosomes are free floating spherical bodies of RNA and proteins which are the site for protein
synthesis. Endoplasmic reticulum is broken into two structures, the rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum. Rough ER provides area for storage and transport of proteins

Which Cell Is The Most Important? Living Organisms?
WHICH CELL IS THE MOST CRUCIAL TO LIVING ORGANISMS?
Anu Bhandary
According to the Oxford Dictionary, a cell is defined as "The smallest structural and functional unit
of an organism, which is typically microscopic and consists of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in
a membrane (Dictionary.com, 2016: para.2)." An organism is said to only be classified as living if it
contains cells or the products of cells. However, there are two different kinds of cells. One type is
prokaryotic cells, these cells do not contain a nucleus and are usually found in less complex,
unicellular organisms such as bacteria and archaea. The other kind is eukaryotic cells (CK–12, 2016:
para.3). Eukaryotic cells can either be multicellular or unicellular. These cells ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The nucleus determines the appearance and function of a cell (Study.com 2016: para.1). The nucleus
is usually a dark spot in the cell, the placement of the nucleus within the cell varies and it isn't
always in the middle of the cell. It is surrounded by cytoplasm which is fluid inside the cells (see
figure 1). The nucleus has a surrounding called the nuclear envelope that consists of an inner and
outer membrane. The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus to keep it separated from the rest of the
cell. However, to allow molecules to come in and out of the nucleus, it has holes called the nuclear
pore complexes (NPR) (Wiley, 2014: para.2). Inside the nucleus is a nucleolus with nucleoplasm
surrounding it. Nucleoplasm is much like the cytoplasm inside cells, it is made up of predominate
water, molecules and dissolved ions. The rest of the nucleus is surrounded by chromatin (material
that consists of protein, RNA, and DNA). DNA is genetic material that provides instructions that are
needed to build proteins. Those proteins then determine everything that goes on in the cell. Without
these proteins, the cell would not function, hence why the nucleus is the most important organelle in
the function of living organisms.
Some may argue that the mitochondrion is the most crucial organelle due to the fact it is

Centrioles, Ribosomes And Chloroplasts
1. Centrioles, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, nucleus.
Cell wall, chloroplasts. Lysosomes and centrioles.
2. Nucleus stores genetic info.
Golgi apparatus sends from endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Vacuoles stores starch and water.
Ribosomes turns genetic info from nucleus into protein.
Cytoskeleton is the "skeleton" of the cell, it holds it up and in shape.
3. Paramecium.
Doesn't have a cell wall.
4. The structure is a fluid collage of lipids and proteins. Its function is to protect the cell from
surroundings. It forms a phospholipid bilayer to keep the hydrophobic tails to stay away from water
while still maintaining the heads to remain surrounded by water.
5. The chloroplasts are located inside the cell. It's the strings ... Show more content on
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Each cube not cut the same measurements therefore not having the same volume.
Not the amount of salt solution measured correctly.
Calculating the volume incorrectly would tamper with ending results.
8. Water moves from lower concentration to higher concentration.
9. A freshwater protest has an environment of hypotonic and its body is made to endure that
environment. And if placed in salt water, it would shrivel and die.
A salt–water snail is isotonic to salt–water so if placed in fresh water, it would gain water swell and
burst.
10. The student might not have kept spraying the lettuce head with water. So when you change the
environment that it is used to, a hypertonic environment, then it loses water and starts to shrivel up.
11. The salt concentration is higher on the outside than on the inside. Since the water goes from low
solute to high, the inside of the leech dehydrates and then it falls off.
12. 216mm^2/216mm^3=1 mm^2/mm^3
54mm^2/26mm^3=2mm^2/mm^3
24mm^2/8mm^3=3mm^2/mm^3
13. Cube 3 because the smaller the cell is, the better the process becomes therefore making Cube 3
easier to handle diffusion because it's smaller.
14. The smaller the cube, the easier the dye was to be absorbed. With a smaller cube, diffusion has a
better chance to travel because it has a shorter

Physiology Of Fluid Balance And The Functions Of The Main...
Unit 13: Physiology of Fluid Balance
In this assignment I will be describing the microstructure of a typical animal cell and the functions
of the main cell components. Describing and explaining the factors the ways in which materials
move in and out of cells. I will also be analysing the role of the phospholipid bilayer in terms of
movement of materials in and out of cells.
Lysosomes – Lysosomes act as the digestive system of the cell. They are found in all parts of the
cell. There are very powerful enzymes within lysosomes.
Cytoplasm – Cytoplasm is the gel–like substance within the cell and outside the nucleus. Chemical
reactions are carried out in the cytoplasm.
Nucleus – The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell. It acts as the control system for almost all
the activities of the cell. It stores the cell 's hereditary material, or DNA
Mitochondria – Spherical bodies in the cytoplasm where energy is produced. The cell uses this
energy to perform the specific work necessary for cell survival and function.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – Endoplasmic reticulum is a branching network that fills the cell
interior. There two types of ER: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) – Synthesis of lipid,
glycogen and steroids (e.g. cholesterol and testosterone).
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) – They are called because of the presence of ribosomes on
them. They provide a site for protein synthesis and helps transport protein.
Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies) – The Golgi apparatus

Essay on Make-up of Life-giving Cells
What is a cell? A cell is "the structural, functional and biological unit of all organisms" (biology–
online.org). The millions of cells that compose the body give life. These cells work together in
synergy to perform the bodily functions God has given man to maintain homeostasis. The cells that
work in harmony consist of an array of cells such as, epidermal, nerve, or muscle. As these various
cells work together they form a biological machine to give life. Before the discovery the cell, many
had their theory of what composed life. Greek philosophers believed that everything consisted of
water, earth, fire, and air called the classical elements (about.com). Charles Darwin erroneously
theorized that they regarded as "simple bags of an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The nucleolus is where the ribosomes or protein factories are manufactured. From its production it is
exported through the nuclear pores and into the cytoplasm to begin its protein manufacturing. The
second major part of the eukaryotic cell is the cytoplasm. This serves as the cell's fluid medium or
matrix. This jellylike fluid allows the organelles or little organs to float within it. Cytoplasm also
contains many dissolved chemicals. The cytoplasm and organelles use the properties within it to
create chemical reactions to produce energy as well as recycling. To give added structure to the cell,
the cytoplasm contains a cytoskeleton to prevent being squashed. The cytoskeleton is composed of
large, hollow rods called microtubules. This gives rigidity like a buildings' steel beams. These beams
also hold the organelles in place. The hollow rods act as highways for transporting goods around the
cell. The proteins from the ribosomes or protein factories can be packaged into a special container
where they are shipped by the microtubules. At the center of the microtubules is the centrosome.
This structure is where the microtubules branch off, which is near the middle of the cell. The
centrosome is called the organizing center because it can break down the microtubules and allow the
organelles to move around. At the center of the centrosome is where the commands are made called
the centrioles, a pair of cylindrical structures. A major part of the

What Are The Three Postulates Of Cell Theory
LESSON 1: CELL THEORY AND ITS PARTS/ORGANELLES AND FUNCTIONS
Living and Non–living Things
All the things we see on earth are created by God Almighty. The rocks, air, soil, chemicals, plants,
trees, animals, humans among others exist on earth. But, we can classify them as living and non–
living things. Living or biotic things have life, and therefore, governed by cells which performed
roles for life to occur. These are plants, animals and humans. On the other hand, non–living or
abiotic things do not have life but they are essential to the existence of life. These are the rocks, soil
and air.
Cell and Cell Theory
The cell is a basic unit of life (Bolsover et al., 2004). It is the basic unit of plants, animals and
humans. Cells serve as the building blocks of life for example of ... Show more content on
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The union of human egg cell and sperm cell forms a new life (Lodish et al.).
Table 1. The three postulates of cell theory and its explanations.
POSTULATES EXPLANATION
Cells are the fundamental units of life Life is governed by cells, the basic unit. Life exists because of
cells. Without cells, there is no life on earth.
All organisms are composed of cells All life forms on earth are made up of cells. Microorganisms,
plants, animals, and humans are composed of cells.
All cells come from preexisting cells Cells originated from ancestral cells existing long time ago.
These cells undergo evolutionary modifications and adaptations with the physical environment.
General Cell Structures and Functions
Based on Bolsover et al. (2004), a cell has parts, structures or organelles (Table 2) that have a
respective function as a whole for life to occur (Figure 2). Generally, cells have parts such as
nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes and cell membrane.
Different structure has different function but working as a whole. One structure cannot make life
possible but many complex structures and functions contribute to the existence of

Nobel Prize for Cell Signaling Pathways Essay
In 2013, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to James Rothman, Randy
Schekman, and Thomas Sudhof for their pioneering research in cell signaling pathways. Together,
they were able to solve many questions that we had about how this precise cell–
‐to–
‐ cell regulation
is carried out. With their works, many scientists across the world can apply their discoveries in
various ways.
Due to our profound genomic studies, we have been able to sequence many genomes of various
organisms. With the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are two processes that are involved in the bulk transport of large molecules. After these large
particles are packaged in vesicles, if the molecules are to be secreted from the cell, the transport
vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane in a process called exocytosis. James Rothman discovered
that "this process is done very precisely as specific protein complexes on the transport vesicles and
specific proteins on the plasma membrane bind together to cause this fusion" (1).
When the cell takes in particles from the outside, the cell sinks inward to form a vesicle of materials
from the outside in the same principle that James Rothman identified.
The plasma membrane plays a key role in cell signaling pathways. Local signaling is when local
regulators are secreted from one cell to trigger nearby

Describe The Four Main Types Of Plant Cells And Their...
TASK 2 i. Name and describe the four main types of tissues in animal ii. Describe the two types of
Plant cell and their function FOUR MAIN TYPES OF TISSUES IN ANIMAL There are four types
of main tissues in human body 1. Epithelium – Epithelium tissues are composed of layers of the
cells that are closely packed together which is specialised to form the covering or lining of both
external and internal surface of body such as surface of your skin and internal digestive system. The
main function of epithelium tissues are to provide protection like skin that protects you from injury,
secretion like glands such as enzymes, and to absorb materials like intestine such as waste products
etc. The two examples of Epithelium tissues are Squamous epithelium and Glandular epithelium. 2.
Connective tissue – Connective tissues holds and binds everything together which are found all
around the body. This type of tissue is also called fibrous connective tissues as they are consisting of
a lot of fibres eg. Collagen and Elastin. The basic function of the connective tissue is to support,
bind or connect all other types of tissues together in the body.Blood, cartilage, and bone are usually
considered as connective tissue 3. Muscle tissue – Muscle cells are the contractive tissue of body
that produce force and cause motion within internal organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three
different categories: visceral or smooth muscle that are located in the inner linings of organs and
skeletal

Eukaryotic And Prokaryotic Of Cells
There are two major groups that cells can be grouped into to. These are eukaryotic and prokaryotic
cells. All eukaryotic cells contain a plasma membrane, as well as cytoplasm and organelles such as
mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, smooth ER, ribosomes, a
nucleus which is surrounded by a double membrane known as the nuclear envelope, and secretory
vesicles. There are some eukaryotic cells which contain more organelles as well as theses. Some
eukaryotic cells, specifically in plants, have chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are organelles that contain
stacks of granum known as thylakoid stacks. The granum contains chlorophyll, and the first stage of
photosynthesis occurs here. Some eukaryotic cells contain centrioles, which are strands of protein
involved in the process of mitosis and meiosis. Pant cells have a cell wall made from cellulose. This
prevents the cell from bursting from too much water uptake via osmosis. Fungi do not have
chloroplasts. They do have a cell wall like plant cells, but whereas the cell walls in the plant cells are
made from cellulose, the cell wall in a fungal cell is made from chitin. This is a polymer made from
N–acetylglucosamine. Prokaryote is the name of a kingdom for organisms, and all bacteria fall into
this kingdom. The prokaryote kingdom is enormous, and prokaryotes are found in every known
habitat on the planet. Bacteria are very useful, they can be used in biomedical sciences to help
develop medicines, and

Role Of Grp170a In C. Elegans
GRP170 is large protein that belong to the HSP70 superfamily of molecular chaperones that are
located in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum, these class of proteins assist with properly
folding polypeptides into proteins, these chaperones are also utilized in the Unfolded Protein
response in the endoplasmic reticulum. Caenorhabditis elegans contain two paralogues of the
GRP170 gene, GRP170a and GRP170a. The expressions of these two loci of the gene occur at
different instances and are induced at different rates. A few studies suggest that grp170a plays a
critical role in ER protein folding, while Grp170b plays a less critical role in protein folding and is
inducible by the unfolded protein response. In order to assay the physiological ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
UPR signaling is activated when the influx of nascent and unfolded proteins exceeds the processing
capacity of the endoplasmic reticulum (Schroder, Kaufman 2005).
One class of chaperones are heat shock protein (HSP) 70 superfamily, which represent a major class
of chaperones (Easton 2000). Endoplasmic reticulum homologs of these chaperones include Grp170
and Grp78 (Easton 2000). Due to the similarities in structure it is said that Grp170 might have a
similar function to Grp78(Easton 2000). The endoplasmic homolog of HSP70, GRP78 is said to
function as a chaperone in the ER that aids with the folding of nascent polypeptides (Malhotra,
2007). Although the cellular functions of Grp170 are not fully understood, data suggests that it can
bind to a variety of incompletely folded polypeptides present in the ER and acts like a chaperone
(Behnke , Hendershoot 2013) similar to Grp78.
Caenorhabditis elegans have two loci encoding the chaperone Grp170, Grp170a and Grp170b.
During ER stress, these two Grp loci are expressed differently in C. elegans (Rockwell 2015). The
expression of grp170 mRNA was analyzed in nematodes deficient for either loci; the results

Membrane Proteins And Non Membrane Bound Organelles
Chapter 4: Membrane Bound Organelles and Non–Membrane Bound Organelles
Membrane Bound Organelles: are contained within an isolated environment surrounded by a
membrane. The composition of these organelles differ in composition, shape and enzyme inclusion.
Members of Membrane Bound Organelle Systems include the Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi
Apparatus, Lysosomes, Mitochondria and Peroxisomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): is a continuous membrane system which forms flattened sacs within
the cytoplasm of Eukaryotic cells and acts a barrier between Cytosol and fluid with the structure.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum plays a variety of different roles including the synthesis, folding,
modification and transport of proteins. There are two different ... Show more content on
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Lysosomes: contain hydrolytic enzymes which aid in the digestion of particles and disintegration of
cells. Formed by the Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes are surrounded by a membrane–bound cell
organelle which contain acidic enzyme material, because of their small sac–like appearance and the
digestive acidic material contained within, Lysosomes are often referred to as "suicide sacs" or
"suicide bags".
Mitochondria: are oblong in appearance and contain a double membrane. Present in the cytoplasm
of nearly all Eukaryotic cells, the primary function of Mitochondria is in the creation of energy.
Commonly referred to as "The Powerhouse of the Cell", Mitochondria is responsible for most of the
cell 's supply of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). Other vital roles include cell growth, cycle and
death, signaling and cellular differentiation.
Peroxisomes: are membrane–bound organelles similar in appearance to Lysosomes, yet they are
smaller in comparison. Peroxisomes contain catalese, peroxidase and oxidative enzymes which aid
in metabolic function, specifically in the beta–oxidation of fatty acid and the conversion of
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
Non–Membrane Bound Organelles: are organized structures which are not bound by a membrane.
Members of Non–Membrane Bound Organelles are Centrosome, Cytoskelaton, Ribosomes and
Proteasomes.
Centrosome: are usually located near

Animal Cell Structure
Animal cells are a type of eukaryotic cell with a nucleus, membrane–bound organelles, with no cell
wall. Here is a summary of their structure and function.
Prokaryotes are the primitive, simple cells of bacteria and their bacteria–like Archaea. Eukaryotes,
which include the most advanced cells of animals, plants, fungi, protozoan, algae, and slime & water
molds.
Eukaryotic cells share many similar characteristics, including some of the following structures,
which can be found in the cells of animals. Glycocalyx: Some animal and protozoan cells have this
outer layer anchored to the plasma membrane. Gycocalyces help animal cells stick to each other and
protect cells from dehydration. This layer is not present in eukaryotic cells that have ... Show more
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Peroxisomes are required by any cell that uses respiration (oxygen to extract energy from food).
Golgi body: In addition to making lysosomes, this organelle coordinates the packaging and shipment
of materials out of the cell. Mitochondria: These double membrane–bound organelles are like tiny
powerhouses of the cell, producing a nucleotide coenzyme that transports energy for use within the
cell.
Cytoplasm: The inside of the cell, between the nucleus and plasma membrane, is filled with a gel–
like fluid in which the organelles are suspended. The liquid portion of cytoplasm is called cytosol.
Cytoskeleton: This network of fibers and tubules is present throughout the interior of the cell,
providing support, anchoring organelles, helping with intracellular transport and cell division.
Centrioles and centrosomes: Only present in animal cells and some fungal cells, a pair of centrioles
is located near the nucleus, in a region called the centrosome. These organelles are composed of
microtubules, help build flagella and cilia and form mitotic spindles during cell division. An animal
cell undergoing mitosis and stained with

Different Types Of Cell Found Within The Human Body
Whilst they are often disregarded and thought to be simple, cells within the human body are made
up of many microscopic parts. Too small to be seen with the naked eye, each cell has their own
unique function, (Biology, 2015). In broad terms, there are two very similar types of cell found
within the human body, (Australian Government, 2015). Although the cells are alike, it is relatively
easy to differentiate between the two. 'Prokaryotic' cells are cells that do not contain a nucleus or
any other membrane–bound organelle, whereas, 'Eukaryotic' cells are cells that do contain
membrane–bound organelles, such as a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells, unlike Prokaryotic cells can be
either single–celled or multi–celled, (Study, 2015).
Many different types of organelles exist within the cells of the human body, (Biology, 2015). Rough
and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria, Vacuoles, The Nucleus, and many more can be
found within the cell. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, or simply 'Rough ER" is studded with protein
builders known as 'Ribosomes' and is used within the human body to manufacture lysosomal
enzymes and secreted proteins. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum or 'Smooth ER' is characterised by
its lack of Ribosomes. Its uses within the body include lipid synthesis, calcium concentration and
drug detoxification, (Biology, 2015). Mitochondria are commonly referred to as the cells
powerhouse as they provide all the necessary energy in the form of ATP that the cells need to do
their

A Comparison of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells Essay
A Comparison of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells
There are two main types of cells in the world. The simplest cells such as bacteria are known as
Prokaryotic cells, and human cells are known as Eukaryotic cells. The main difference between each
of these cells is that a eukaryotic cell has a nucleus and a membrane bound section in which the cell
holds the main DNA which are building blocks of life.
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. The chromosomes which are found in prokaryotes are
usually spread in the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells the chromosomes remain together inside the
nucleus and there is a clear nuclear membrane that is surrounding the nucleus.
Another difference between the two cells is that, in prokaryotic cells ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
A nucleus is a membrane which can be found in most eukaryotic cells.
The main functions of a nucleus cell are:
Being involved in cell division
All the functions of other cells are done under the instruction of the nucleus
DNA is the building blocks of life which are found within the nucleus.
The main function of the Endoplasmic Reticulum is to produce, store and transport proteins and
lipid to most of the cell organelles. The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a large organelle that looks like
sheets of folded membranes.
There are two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum the Smooth ER and the Rough ER. you can
distinguish that both of the ER's are different to each other, this is shown in the diagram above that
one is smooth ER and the other is rough ER the rough ER has ribsomes attracted to it while the
smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached to it. The two ER's have different function to each
other.
Structure of Endoplasmic reticulum: – Sheets of membrane with ribosomes outside (for rough ER).
– Forms a tubular network throughout the cell. Function of Endoplasmic reticulum: – Transports
chemicals, proteins, and lipids between cells and within cells – The endoplasmic reticulum provides
a large surface area for the organization of chemical reactions to take place and synthesis.
In size Ribsomes are about 25 un is diameter. They are arranged in to

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