Effects Of Nicotine On Children And Non Smokers Alike

Effects Of Nicotine On Children And Non Smokers Alike
Nicotine is most commonly known for being the key ingredient and major psychoactive component
of tobacco smoke, however, the attention it has gotten recently can be attributed to the effects on
cognition being observed amongst smokers and non–smokers alike. Much research has been done to
identify what role, if any, nicotine has on learning, memory, and attention through an analysis of the
behavioral, pharmacological, and anatomical specifications of the drug. Overwhelming evidence
now exists pointing to a direct linkage between nicotine and enhanced cognition, leading to new and
promising interventions for cognitive related deficiencies and disorders.
Cognition refers to the mental processes associated with the acquisition of knowledge ... Show more
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Nonetheless, there is substantial evidence supporting the agonistic effect nicotine has on both post–
and presynaptic mechanisms, as well as dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate/NMDA,
GABA, opioid, and histaminergic systems (Kumari, et al., 2003).
Several studies have been done to identify the specific role nicotine plays in cognitive functioning,
and while there have been some exceptions, the effects of nicotinic drug manipulations on cognition
have been observed with several behavioral tests in rats, monkeys and humans. Animal models have
proven to be very useful in functional testing of synthetic nicotine compounds and in detailing the
mechanisms involved in nicotine–induced cognitive improvement. In rats, the radial arm maze
serves as an important measure of working memory, or memory with changing contents, and was
thus employed in studies assessing the impact of nicotinic agonists.
To test the effect of acute nicotine administration of both working and reference memory in adult
female rats, Rezvani & Levin (2001) used a 16–arm radial maze was. Following a standard 18
session training, the rats were injected subcutaneously with either saline (control) or a dose of 0.2
mg/kg nicotine, and then assessed in the maze after 20 minutes of latency. Six separate studies, with
71 adult female Sprague–Dawley
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Elephant Console Each Other Virginia Morell Analysis
Can elephants be more than just a big animal with a funny nose? That is exactly what scientists are
trying to prove. Virginia Morell and Joshua Plotnik have shown us in their works that elephants can
convey much more than meets the eye. Although both authors have written the passages for
information purposes, they do so in varied ways.
Virginia Morell wrote to inform about the level of intelligence coming from the elephants so that the
audience realizes and learns from the behaviors. She sought to explain to us how the elephant's
behavioral patterns and their higher level intelligence compared to other species. As her article
"Elephants Can Lend a Helping Trunk" states very clearly, "The ability to recognize that you
sometimes need a little ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In his article "Elephants Know When They Need a Helping Trunk in a Cooperative Task", he uses
statistics, facts and measurements to verify others can be sure to conduct the experiment again. He
does so by stating when the original experiment was conducted, which was in January through May
in 2009. He elegantly describes the structure of the experiment along with details that may have
altered his results. Plotnik uses scientific wording to describe the data he collected in his
experiment. This can be proven by the chart given, along with instructions on how to replicate the
tests. The chart provides the test results which show how the elephants scored.This demonstrates
that he was writing for the sole purpose of informing the reader, who he is expecting to be scientists
based on his wording, about how to conduct the exact trial he

The Work of James Jerome Gibson
I. Brief biography1
James Jerome Gibson was born on January 27, 1904, in McConnelsville, Ohio, U.S. and died on
December 11, 1979. He was an experimental psychologist whose work focused primarily on visual
perception. He received his Ph.D. in Psychology from Princeton University in 1928 and joined the
faculty of Smith College. During World War II he served in the Army Air Forces (1942–46). In the
Army, Gibson developed tests used to screen potential pilots. In doing so, he made the observation
that pilots orient themselves according to the characteristics of the ground surface rather than
through kinesthetic senses (Hochberg, 1994).
After the war he returned to Smith College before moving to Cornell University in 1949. He retired
in 1972 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From such a radical conception of visual perception, Gibson (1979) expanded and evolved his
theory of visual perception into the theory of information pickup by saying, "when vision is thought
of as a perceptual system instead of as a channel for inputs for the brain, a new theory of perception
considered as information pickup becomes possible" (p. 262). According to this information pickup
theory, information does not have to be stored in memory because it is always available. What he
argued, as opposed to the information processing view of cognition, is that information is not
something that has to be processed, rather one that is provided and structured invariant within the
environment to be used in activities. As such, his direct perception implies a new theory of cognition
that is offered as a substitute for the theory of past experience, memory, and mental images.
Such his claim and notion of perception and cognition have a profound impact on the field of
psychology in a new way to describe human thinking. Specifically, his theory, albeit that he did not
mention explicitly throughout his works, has underpinned the tenet of ecological psychology,

Decoding Of The Primal Emotional Experiences Of Humans And...
Decoding of the Primal Emotional Experiences of Humans and Animals from neuroscience
perspective
The article on the science news titled 'What is the cognitive rift between humans and animals' sheds
light on the major cognitive differences between animals and humans. A scientist from the Harvard
University synthesized some key variations that is existent in human and animal cognition into what
precisely distinct human thought and that of animal. Marc Hauser, professor of psychology from
Harvard presents his concept of the uniqueness of humankind, which make human cognition unique.
The professor of psychology was of the opinion that animals share a lot of features that is evident in
human thought, but ironically, there is a cognitive lacuna between humans and other animals. The
professor contends that by analyzing the principal differences in cognitive abilities, some elements
are found that are of human cognition and are distinctively human.
The challenge that emerges though is the recognition of the systems that animals and human have in
common, those that are distinct, and how they interact and interface with one another. In recent
times, some scientists have come to the realization that some animals think in ways that at some
point were perceived unique to humankind. For instance, some animals have episodic memory or
mathematical proficiency that is non–linguistic. Nonetheless, despite these obvious similarities, a
cognitive gap still exists between humans and other

Of All The Mental Duties Revealed About The Rat During
Of all the mental duties revealed about the rat during this book, the one that most interested me was
direct reciprocity. This was the most intriguing information, because while generalized reciprocity
would seem to be a higher functioning thought process, in reality direct reciprocity is far more
complex. The animals must learn and understand reciprocal altruism. Not only are the animals
required to learn that there is a causal relationship between cooperatively working together and
receiving more rewards, there is an entire chain of events that must take place. In order to perform
direct reciprocity a rat must be able to tell apart other rats, and keep a mental list. This list consists
of all of the specific rats that have helped it in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this instance migratory birds are able to learn a sort of mental compass. While many people
would assume that this information is genetically encoded, that is impossible since celestial poles
change every 27,000 years (far faster than evolution can update a bird 's mental gps). Rather than
have this information genetically encoded, the migratory birds are genetically prepared to learn this
information. Nestlings spend a majority of their time watching the constellations, in order to map
the stars. The quality and quantity of the material the baby birds must learn is fascinatingly
impressive. The cherished notion on the uniqueness of human intelligence is an unfair assumption.
Many people dwell upon these ideas in order to feel superiority and to justify actions. People would
be far less willing to experiment on lab rats if they acknowledged the fact that they are intelligent.
People typically regard animals as less intelligent than they really are because if they didn't then it
would create a cognitive dissonance. People don't want to probe at animals if they they believe the
animals possess human–like

Use Visual Cues To Read Horse Emotions
Horses are moody: Scientists read horse emotions
According to sources, after performing studies at the University of Sussex, Jennifer Wathan and
Karen McComb made a breakthrough––readable horses. Frankly, multitudes of animals
communicate to each other; more than none. Adversely, humans do not know and understand all of a
horse's movements that relate to their decision making process. Fortunately, these two university
researchers have an answer: Use visual cues to read a horse's mood. Jennifer Wathan assessed that
being decisive to cognition and emotion is a fundamental skill; even for animals. In relation to
horses, their ears and eyes tell the tale.
Research Project: Look at the Picture
After gathering 72 horses, the chosen experiment

Overmier And Seligman's Theory Of Learned Helplessness
Learned helplessness is used to explain the failure to avoid aversive stimuli in a controllable
situation after experiencing an unavoidable aversive situation because the organisms learned that the
avoidance of the aversive situation is not affected by their actions (Seligman & Maier, 1967).
Overmier and Seligman (1967) also suggest that this phenomenon is seen when a subject that is
revealed frequently to an unavoidable stressor will develop an observable sign in which it displays
lowered ability to escape the same stressor when it is delivered in cases where escape is available.
The major application of this theory is used to understand depression in humans.
Learned helplessness was actually discovered accidentally. It was found out when ... Show more
Miller and Seligman (1975) found that people that were not diagnosed with depression showed a
lower performance in anagram after going through training in helplessness. This result is the same
as the people with depression but did not undergo training in helplessness. This shows that learned
helplessness has similar effects with depression. However, some people do not suffer depression
although they encountered lots of bad experiences in their daily life. Attributional style can explain
this phenomenon (Abrasom, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978). To become depressed, one has to believe
that the situation cannot be changed and also attribute the negative situation to internal, stable, and
global causes instead of external, unstable and specific causes. For example, Anand lost to Carlsen
in the World Chess Championship. If he thought that this is due to his own inadequacy, he will keep
losing to Carlsen in the future, and his whole life is hopeless, he will then probably develop
depression. This view is more concrete than just applying the learned helplessness theory as Anand
may not be depressed just by losing to

The Moral Aesop Knew Something About Crow Summary
The article, "The Moral: Aesop Knew Something About Crows," reveals a better understanding of
the intelligence of crows and how their abilities, or lack thereof, relates to humans. The author
discussed multiple experiments that were conducted on New Caledonian crows that revealed the
limitations on the bird's ability to learn. First, the birds were trained to pick up stones and drop them
into a dry tube for a reward. Next, they took Aesop's test in several different situations. From the
tests, the birds learned not to drop the stones in a tube of sand with a treat, and they also correctly
chose sinking objects rather than floating ones and solid rather than hollow. However, if part of the
tube was hidden, then the birds could not learn. They also didn't appear to understand that fewer
pebbles in a narrow tube would make the water rise more quickly. They learned two things from
these experiments: they weren't just learning abstract rules and the need to see results of the
behavior revealed a level of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Results from those experiments revealed that absolute brain size was the best predictor of success,
even though many would argue that relative brain size is directly related to intelligence. Regardless,
humans have quite large brains that allow for higher levels of cognition in comparison to most other
animal species. It is interesting that in that very same experiment, elephants only took one of the
tests and did quite poorly. If absolute brain size was the only aspect that mattered, then elephants
should have done exceptionally well. However, human brains are unique in that the absolute size is
quite large in comparison to most other species, they are relatively large in comparison to our own
body weights, and humans have a diverse diet that also affects some aspects of cognition as revealed
by the significance in the

Argumentative Analysis
Standard cognitive science is the way we go about studying thought or mental organization from
means such as psychology or computers. Embodied cognition is similar, but instead takes into
consideration how the environment plays a role in the development of cognitive progression. Tim
Crane and Lawrence Shapiro, through their text, both highlight the importance of each type of
cognitive approach. Where Crane presents cognitive science to revolve around computational
processes inside the brain, Shapiro presents examples for embodied cognition to either be
supplemental or incorrect in comparison to the standard cognitive approach. Shapiro does so by
laying out three important hypotheses: conceptualization, replacement, and constitution. The
conceptualization ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It appears that the two cognitivist complement each other's work, whether or not they acknowledge
it, but there are some opposing arguments that don't believe that at all. Adams and Aizawa go
heavily into detail when defining what it means to be intrinsic, or natural. They believe that
constituents of cognitive processes must involve intrinsic content. In an example with an Otto and
Inga, the two have memory problems. In order for Otto to recall information he writes it down in a
little notebook, whereas Inga solely relies on her ability to retain memories. Adams and Aizawa
view Otto's way of remembering as extrinsic because he relies on an external feature to recall
something. The two are correct in their belief that constituents of cognitive processes must involve
intrinsic content, but if the contents of the notebook are a way for Otto to "off–load" information
then wouldn't it still be intrinsic material just shifted to an external element? Shapiro says, "Adams
and Aizawa on occasion demand conditions for identifying cognitive processes rather than cognitive
states. This opens them to the criticism that they have misunderstood constitution which is a thesis
about the location of the constituents of cognitive processes"( S 187). I would respond

Spatial Cognition Mini-Review
Mini–Review: Spatial Cognition Spatial Cognition is concerned with the achievement, organization,
application, and modification of knowledge about spatial surroundings (Bandura., 1963). These
capabilities enable animals and humans to manage basic and high–level cognitive tasks in everyday
life (Bandura.,1971). Spatial cognition studies have assisted to tie cognitive psychology and
neuroscience together. Most researchers are concerned about how animals acquire and find
information. Since acquiring and acting on spatial information appears to have computational
requirements from learning to predict temporal sequences of events, we might expect to find
adaptively specialized, domain–specific mechanisms of spatial learning and/or ... Show more
The global picture developing from this support is that spatial cognition can be split into two genres
which are to some magnitude divided in mammalian brain (Hartley & Burgess., 2001). There are
various mechanisms for spatial cognition, which pose the ultimate question: "Do animals have
cognitive maps?" (Shettleworth., 2010) These include dead reckoning, beacons, landmarks, routes,
and geometry (Shettleworth., 2010). Dead reckoning is an internal sense of the direction and
distance of the target from the current position. It is one of the most basic and ubiquitous ways in
which animals keep track of their location with respect to a known position. It has been mostly
studied in bees, spiders, and ants. Dead reckoning is a mechanism for egocentric spatial localization,
that is, the animal is localizing things in the environment with respect to itself. Beacons are local or
proximal cues, whereas landmarks are global or distal cues (Shettleworth., 2010). A guide animals
can use when features of a goal are not immediately perceptible from a distance in fixed locations
are called landmarks (Shettleworth., 2010). They are used based on three factors: template matching
and local views, vector sum model, and multiple bearing models. Route learning is often referred to
as reaching a goal using a series of landmarks, which is a series of stimulus–response (S–R)
associations (Shettleworth., 2010). This concept can be

Creative Thinking Is A Technique Of Observing Problems
Literature Review Creative thinking is a technique of observing problems or situations that suggests
unusual solutions. Creative thinking can be stimulated both by an unstructured process such as
brainstorming, or by a structured process, such as lateral thinking. Having reviewed some of the
most recent theoretical approaches in the study of creativity, we wanted to compare between
teaching strategies at the undergraduate level, the behavior of the professors and training methods
provided about creative thinking and how to deal with students to develop creativity. Some students
have the ability to think creatively by asking questions outside the textbooks, but unfortunately, the
school does not provide additional incentives and support for ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The data retrieval occurs in the memory and involves retrieving learned information using creative
thinking techniques. However, there are fundamental differences in the creative thinking strategies
for teaching biology and reading classes at the undergraduate level. One can group these teaching
methods according to six main concepts relating to cognition, the making of connections,
pedagogical teaching techniques, and creativity obtained from content knowledge, adaptive
expertise and amplification of creativity through collaborative thinking. Kozbelt, Beghetto & Runco
(2010) say that the creativity phenomenon and the use of creative thinking to teach Eurocentric
languages like English involves multiple interpretations. One can derive multiple conclusions and
contexts from a single sentence as a result of the mind's ability to look for subtle sub contexts or
hidden meanings. Thus only narrow creativity aspects are comprehensible in terms of verifiable
hypothesis that provide concrete "Yes" or "No" answers. That is definite losers or winners. The
paper will look at these concepts and come up with fundamental differences between the teaching
methods used in undergraduate biology and English language instruction. The Cognition refers to
the unique set of an individual 's mental processes and abilities that are related to various things.
These include general memory, attention, judgment, evaluation, problem solving, production of
language,

How Important are Emotions in Human Cognition? Essay
For many people, they live their lives based on emotions. Emotions of happiness, love, success, and
many more, could possibly be the most satisfying feelings. Except we commonly experience
unpleasant emotions. There are emotions of anger, hatred, sadness, and disgrace. A very important
question in the understanding of the human mind and highly related to cognitive science, is how do
these emotions affect human cognition and the impact on our abilities to be rational? To tackle this
question, we need to understand what emotions are, but not solely in the manner we are all familiar
with, we need to understand them from a cognitive nature involving our physiology, psychology,
and environment. Cognition, according to the Oxford definition ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Over the last 2 decades it has been understood that collaboration of different areas play a huge role
understanding human behavior. In the other hand, being rational, according to the Oxford definition,
is "being able to think sensibly or logically. Using reason and logic". If emotions did not affect our
rationality, how can we possibly have so much crime and at the same time, so much success from
others? The same answer is applied to this part of the question; emotions alone do not affect our
rationality. It is a complex system of interconnected networks including emotions, cognitions,
physiology, psychology and more.
Alternatives Some view emotions as problem–solving abilities allowing us to be ready for action,
and thereby not getting lost in thought when action is required (Frijda 1986). Therefore, our
emotions would allow problem solving by focusing attention on aspects of a situation that matter
most. By doing this, emotions provide the readiness for action. Could this possibly explain our
different temperaments during different situations? When presented in an alarming situation, we
notice changes that influence our actions. We suddenly redirect our attention to that situation of
interest. This has been referred to as the focus of our attention from a summary of appraisals, to
arrive

Links Between Cognition And Language
There are a number of links between cognition and language that form important links. These links
are illustrated well, specifically in terms of spatial organization, fire, hunting and cooperative
provisioning, within the context of the Gesher Benot Ya'aqov.
Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (GBY) is an archaeological site Dated to approximately 780 kya. It provides
evidence to support the notion that early hominids were making fires, and spatially organising their
lives in a social manner, deliberately around and based upon hearths. Firstly, spatial organisation
entails placing and structuring living and working spaces deliberately and consciously, in a manner
that amplifies the functionality of the beings within a specific environment. Archaeologists have
mapped this specific site through the use of kernel density. The kernel density of burnt and unburnt
microliths illustrate that specific parts or sections of the site were used exclusively for performing
specific tasks. For example, we can map and see that according to burnt and unburnt fish bones, that
fish were processed at the norther part of the site while they were cooked at the southern part of the
site. Through this, we can see deliberate spatial allocations of land to be used for specific tasks. This
is very important as it also illustrates important links to language and cognition in the following
ways.
A certain level of cognitive complexity is required for such manipulation of the environment. It
would have been far more

The Four Stages Of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget was the first psychologist to design a comprehensive model for the study cognitive
development. This model explained how a child's cognitive skills develop over their lifetime, which
will eventually result in more of an adult way of thinking; or a more elaborate and logical way of
thinking. Unlike other psychologists who were studying cognition, Piaget believed that children
were not "tiny adults", who had to eventually access a more complex way of thinking over time.
Instead, he believed that a child's cognition progresses in stages through the process of reorganizing
their way of thinking. The four stages of cognitive development, which I will discuss later, stemmed
from a child's need to equal their two process of thinking.
These two processes of thinking are called assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is defined
as the ability to take in new information or experiences and connecting them with previous
knowledge. Accommodation is defined as gaining new information or experiences that cause a child
to modify their existing schemas, or previous idea. However, in accommodation, rather than the
child completely making new information; they change the previous schema to make it fit, or
accommodate, the new information. By understanding these two processes of thinking, and how
they developed over time, Piaget created his four stage theory of cognition development.
Through the understanding of Piaget's four stages of cognition development, we can contrast

Animal Cognition : Understanding Cognitive Abilities Of...
Advances in Canine Cognition: Understanding Cognitive Abilities of the Domestic Dog
The present paper is dedicated to explain and describe the different advances and developments
achieved in canine cognition. It seems to be growing interest in the cognitive abilities of the
domestic dog; this interest is, certainly not new; many researchers have been studying canine
cognition for quite some time and the knowledge about this area has increased. Dogs were
domesticated approximately 10,000 years ago (Vila, C., Savolainen, P., Maldonado, J, E., Amorin,
I., R., Rice, J., E., et al. (1997). In our current society dogs are considered unique; since they are the
primary animals chosen to help us, humans, in so many different ways. Dogs have been raised and
trained to help us hunt, herd our livestock, protect our homes, also, dogs have become an important
addition to the armed forces, service animals and, of course, dogs are our companions.
Cognition can be generally defined as the mental processes that include perception, learning,
memory, decision–making that allows an animal to take in information about the environment,
process and retain the information, and make decisions on how to act. These mental processes are in
general measured indirectly. Over the last decades several publications on canine cognition have
produced a great amount of information on canine cognitive abilities. (Frank, 2002). The subject of
canine cognition is very interesting topic this paper aims to expand

The Importance Of Attitudes On Behavior
Introduction According to social cognitive theory, our attitudes toward others influence how we
think, feel, and sometimes behave in social situations. In other words, an "attitude" consists of three
components: affect, cognition, and behavior. However, some psychologists do not consider behavior
to be a component of an attitude, but merely only influenced by an attitude. Throughout the paper
we will explore what an attitude is and research showing how attitudes can be influenced by
behavior, as well as influence behavior. Research will be provided on when attitudes and behavior
influence each other, as well as, research on the interplay of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Then,
research will be presented on when attitudes can change, with a focus on the behavioral component
of attitudes. A major reason for attitude change is cognitive dissonance. In Aronson's book, The
Social Animal, he explains that when thoughts, feelings, and behaviors align (for example: we are
think we are doing prosocial behaviors, feel as if we are a good person, and are behaving
prosocially), then we do not experience tension or "dissonance." When there is a disconnect between
any of these three components, then we feel tension. For example, if you think you are a good
person, yet you engage in anti–social behavior, you will experience tension. Attitudes An attitude is
an evaluation. As we said, attitudes are made up of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The attitudes
we hold can influence how

Human Cognition And The Social World
The famous Greek philosopher Aristotle once said "Man is by nature a social animal; an individual
who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human.
Society is something that precedes the individual. Anyone who either cannot lead the common life
or is so self–sufficient as not to need to, and therefore does not partake of society, is either a beast or
a god." In this quote, Aristotle reveals that he believes that our participation in the social world is
something that is a given; all humans partake in this social world as it is necessary for life. Now,
thousands of years later, researchers have learned that our cognitive, social, and emotional
development has been affected by our participation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The child rocked back and forth for no apparent reason; this was due to intrinsic motivation. He did
it because it gave him pleasure; his cognition motivated him to do it from within. An example of
extrinsic cognition is the school instruction he was receiving from his teacher. He was receiving
motivation from outside sources such as his teacher and the housekeeper. The child's participation in
the social world led his to cognitive, social, and emotional development, as he was able to start
learning to identify letters, act normal with his teacher, and somewhat control his emotions. It was
clear at the end of the film that the child had matured greatly from a cognitive perspective due to his
participation in a social world. Another feature of human cognition is the humanistic approach to
cognition. This was most greatly exemplified in the movie "The Pawnbroker." In this movie, the
main character, the Pawnbroker, shows humanistic cognition through the flashbacks shown
throughout the movie. The Pawnbroker's negative experiences in life color his emotions and affect
the way he perceives those around him. The Pawnbroker is tormented by the loss of his family in the
Nazi concentration camps, and treats everyone he meets with a rough indifference. However, as we
are shown through his flashbacks, the character desires nothing more than to be with his family.
However, the anger that the Pawnbroker expresses leads to his

The Separation of Human Intelligence from Artificial...
The question of what it means to be human, and what might separate human intelligence from
artificial intelligence, has never been more important, because humanity is rapidly approaching the
point where technological development will allow the creation of genuinely creative thinking
machines. Philosophers, scientists, and even fiction authors have grappled with the ethical
implications of this possibility, but many of the ethical quandaries faced by these thinkers are
predicated upon a misguided conception of what it means to be human in the first place. By
examining the role of metaphors in cognition, what it means to be human, the non–existence of the
so–called "mind–body" problem, and the somewhat surprising lack of a distinction between human
and artificial intelligence, it will be possible to demonstrate that the ethical issues concerning the
creation of thinking machines are no different than those concerning the conception of a human
child, and furthermore, that there might even be a kind of ethical imperative for humans to create
and nurture artificial intelligence in the future. To begin this study, it necessary to discuss certain
elements of human cognition that have, in the past, led philosophers to imagine that human
intelligence represents something special, unique, or otherwise distinct from other forms of
intelligence, but which actually reveal that human intelligence is nothing more than the product of
evolution, along with every living thing humans have

What Are The Four Approaches Of Cognitive Psychology
INTRODUCTION
The very concept of cognitive psychology comes from the fact that human beings receive stimuli
from the outside environment. Human beings are influenced by stimuli outside their immediate
environment. These stimuli end up influencing the behaviour an individual will display when faced
with different life events. However, these stimuli go through many processes before it could be
interpreted by the individual. The brain has to receive the information, and give some interpretations
to it. These internal processes are what cognitive psychology is all about. The assignment will focus
on the different approaches to cognitive psychology.
MAJOR APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING COGNITIVE PROCESSES
1. Information Processing Approach
This approach simply assumes that the human being is a processor of information just in a similar
way like the computer. Information processing approach to cognitive psychology sees the mind as
an information processors and that is possible and desirable to study the internal processes that lie
between the environmental stimuli and the response individuals give to it. This approach argues that
information made ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Human Experimental psychology simply means the act of using many experimental methods to
study human behaviour. With regard to cognitive psychology, psychologists have often made use of
animals to understand how human brains function in terms of getting information, processing it and
storing it for short term or long term purposes. Experimental psychologists could use human or
animal participants to study some topics like sensation and perception, memory, cognition, learning,
motivation, emotion, etc. all these processes are all components of cognitive psychology and in one
way or the other has something to do with human cognition. As a result, to gain more insight into
how they function, a detailed experimentation could sometimes be done into these areas through the
use of different scientific methods of

Language and Cognition
Language and Cognition
Axia College of the University of Phoenix
PSY360
September 12, 2011
Language and Cognition Language is considered unique among humans. Language, as defined
below, occurs only among the human species and does not exist elsewhere in the animal kingdom.
Therefore, the study of how humans learn, process, and create meaning from linguistic utterances
and the written word is a central feature of cognitive psychology. The many questions that arise
from this line of research include whether language is a separate faculty apart from cognition or if
language is a product of our general cognitive abilities (Harris, n. d.). To examine language in the
context of cognition, it is necessary to arrive at a working ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Words are also interpreted in terms of context. In addition, "people recognize words through a
matching process in which a spoken word is compared with a mental dictionary called a lexicon that
contains representations of all the words they know (Willingham, 2007 p. 453). This important to
cognitive system because once a phoneme string is found to match an entry in the lexicon, other
properties including spelling and meanings can then be accessed. Lexical decisions are subject to
priming. The lexicon can be primed by a word so that related words will more quickly come to
mind. Disambiguation of sentences first requires that the words be placed in a logical order.
Changing the order of the words can radically alter the meaning of a sentence. Psychologists refer to
the psychological mechanism that recognizes phrase structure as the parser. It is the function of the
sentence parser to process phrase structure. The parser may be guided by "syntactic factors (key
words, minimal attachment, recency), frequency, and semantics (i.e., meaning) (Willingham 2007 p.
460). According to Willingham (2007), the two key aspects that help people to understand text are
making inferences from the text and seeking coherence within the text. Making inferences is a
process of filling in information not specifically stated within the text. The inferences are generally
made based on the reader's prior experiences. The search for coherence is the process comparing

Physical Exercise and Cognitive Functioning in Children
The purpose of this study is to look at if physical exercise will help the healthy cognitive
development in children and adolescence and this paper will illustrate that the same facts are true for
children and adolescence, and will stress the importance of exercise for children optimal brain
development and growth. The current studies show that physical activity has a positive effect on
attention, neuroplasticity and intellectual development in children and adolescence. The studies also
seem to show the importance of physical activity like PE classes and recess in schools and
curriculum to have well–founded, healthy children. The studies show that physical activity has
affects on brain growth and development and if children activate and ... Show more content on
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An article written by Tomporowski (2012) proves some of the same points of the earlier articles by
stated that much research recently has shown there is a significant correlation between physical
activity and intelligence and healthy cognitive development and structures in children. Again, this
article states that not much research has been done, but most of the research has proven that physical
exercise helps neuropathways in the brain and rebuilding brain cells for healthier development. This
is essential for children and adolescents as they grow, and physical activity and exercise is proving
to be a huge factor determining many children and their future. "A few studies, however, provide
evidence that exercise may facilitate specific types of cognitive functioning. Children's executive
functions appear particularly sensitive to exercise interventions, (Tomporowski, 2012).
Kraft's article states that there is increasing evidence over the years that physical activity has a direct
and significant effect on cognitive function, as explained in the article. This article talks about the
research done on both animals and humans to prove that exercise is looked at the cause of
"stimulating neuroplasticity," as stated in the article, which could increase cognitive functioning.
The article goes into further detail of the neurology behind the

Do Humans And Other Animals Become More Relevant?
irst arriving two hundred years ago, Homo sapiens have diverged from an earlier ancestral species,
developing drastically distinct characteristics from other animals. As advancements in the field of
evolutionary biology occur, the issue of whether or not humans and other animals are fundamentally
different becomes more relevant. It is only appropriate in this context that "fundamentally" must be
defined as a "relating to the basic character of something" (Macmillan Dictionary) because
taxonomy organizes organisms based off of shared qualities. Therefore, for two things to be
"fundamentally different," they must differ in their basic traits and characteristics. Although humans
and animals share similar genetic makeup, humans and other animals are fundamentally different
because of their capability for advanced cognitive functions and the cumulative culture that has
developed because of it. Unlike other animals, humans are fundamentally different in their mental
capability for higher level thinking, resulting in the development of complex relationships and
abstract ideas. As observed by Felix Warneken of Harvard University, human children are
"proactive" when cooperating while chimpanzees are "reactive," handing "over objects but only
after some nudging" (Hogenboom). Children are "innate helpers" that "act selflessly before social
norms," "spontaneously open[ing] doors for adults and pick[ing] up 'accidentally' dropped items"
(Hogenboom). The fact that humans, even at a

Animal Rights : A Case For Animal Intelligence
Animal Rights: A Case for Animal Intelligence
Starting in the 17th century, enlightenment philosophers contemplated animal consciousness and its
subsequent implications on animal rights. Descartes viewed animals as a modern–day machine:
organic beings that only act instinctually. Thus, Descartes critically distinguished humans and
animals based on their respective capacity for reason: since animals supposedly lack the ability to
learn, they forego fundamental human rights. However, animal mind philosophy gradually shifted
towards the end of the 19th century as Charles Darwin recorded notes of various species around the
world. For example, Darwin observed an earthworm consuming leaves in an intelligent, non–
instinctual way that, to him, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So, Cartesian Dualism offers an empirical and partially objective way to measure animals, and will
be the basis for a contemporary test to assess an animal's abilities. Clearly, animal intelligence
clearly cannot be measured simply, since each animal must be inspected individually to assess its
competency. Therefore, animals should be considered intelligent if they meet a majority of the
following requirements: an ability to communicate and understand, self–consciousness, high relative
size of brain to body mass (>= ~2% of total mass), an ability to solve new problems using reasoning
without relying on instinct, a desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain, and an ability to act
empathetically. Of course, there will always exist animals that almost meet these requirements, but
do not quite fulfill a majority, so animal intelligence must be viewed in terms of relative
intelligence. Ultimately, although some animals today lack a mind capable of creating solutions to
novel problems and sensing oneself (self–consciousness), several animals today, including dolphins,
parrots, and chimpanzees, meet these requirements to be considered intelligent beings and thus
should be entitled to the same inalienable rights as humans proportionally to their intellect. Dolphins
exemplify high animal intelligence because of their unique levels of self–awareness and ability to
learn and teach each other. For instance, dolphins, like humans, can look at a mirror, recognize

Exercise Increases The Intelligence Of Humans
Now a days everywhere you go people are idolizing human fitness and exercise. The majority of this
generation eats right, lifts right and obsesses over their image. The average person is going to strive
for a great body, and great intelligence. But who ever said you can have both a great– healthy body
and intelligence? I do, the human brain is the most complex and unique organ in the body. Some
even consider it a muscle. Similar to muscles, your brain can be trained and worked for better
functionality. There is a direct connection between exercising and increased intelligence in humans.
In this paper I will be backing up my claim that exercise increases the intelligence of humans. By
exercise I mean aerobic physical activity. Physical activity is better known as cardio, it is when your
body requires pumping of oxygenated blood by the heart to deliver oxygen to working muscles. By
intelligence I mean cognitive ability, memorization and academic achievement. Humans, meaning
the entire general population, not a specific sample of the population. I will also being offering a
counter argument, stating that intelligence does not increase human intelligence. Then, I will be
evaluating the two claims, applying reason, and utilizing the four tests of an argument and taking
advantage of my critical thinking skills to validate my claim. Lastly, I will be concluding and
synthesizing my argument. A study done by Kaycee M. Sink, M.D., M.A.S., of Wake Forest Baptist
Medical Center and

Absence of Evidence, or Evidence of Absence; A paper on...
Absence of Evidence, or Evidence of Absence? A paper on Animal Consciousness
     Consciousness is a difficult term to grasp; so much so, that
many scientists will not even attempt to define the term, much less search for it's evidence. Most
however, do agree that consciousness must include certain aspects; specifically cognition, self–
awareness, memory, and abstract thought.      Lesley J. Rogers
describes consciousness as, "related to awareness, intelligence, and complex cognition, as well as
language. Consciousness may be manifested in self–awareness, awareness of others, intentional
behavior, including intentional communication, deception of others, and in the ... Show more
     In Dr. Pepperberg's book, The Alex Studies, she taught the
parrot to be able to recognize different objects by color, shape, and material. He was even able to
eventually distinguish between concepts such as "bigger," "smaller," "same," "different," "over," and
"under." When asked to identify objects, Alex correctly identified, on first try, 80% of all objects
presented in over 200 tests (45). He was also able to correctly pair different labels together to fit a
certain object; for example color and material. After only two years of training, Alex was able to
communicate with contextual and conceptual use of human speech. He could identify, request, and
refuse a set of objects for play or food (50). Dr. Pepperberg also took precautions to ensure that she
had not allowed for any "cues" to tip off Alex to a correct answer, as in the case of "Clever Hans."
     These animals also demonstrated memory, another of the
aspects of consciousness. Many behaviorists believe that animals act only on instinct, or on
conditioned responses to stimuli. Others, like Lesley J. Rogers, believe that memories actually play
an important part in an animal's behavior. "The uniqueness of an individual is not simply encoded in
the enormous diversity of our genetic code (our inheritance) but is established by our unique

Cognition Essay
COGNITION
Cognition has significant ties to the brain function, this leads to strong association. Although the
brain is greatly impacted in a run, cognition is not in young adults. Cognition is benefited in those
who are "losing it" possible of age–relation, like those with dementia or heading there (Stroth,
2009). Middle age is when the cognition can start to be impacted because exercise seems to decrease
tissue loss in areas around the brain. With the loss of tissue a counterside to not exercising, exercise
for the middle age can be even more beneficial than it is to teens. The brain faces new challenges as
people hit middle age including; pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as dementia. The
relationship to young ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Animals are used in many experiments, including those on seeing how the brain is impacted in
different ways from specific activity. The process of neural adaptation alongside exercise come
together and increase the regional blood flow. The increase in levels of brain–derived neurotrophic
factor (BDNF), with upregulation of genes is identified with cellular plasticity. These changes occur
in the metabolism and of important neurotransmitters including serotonin and dopamine, which are
crucial for cognitive functions and for the best effects. Stimulations of neurogenesis in an adult brain
from physical activity has resulted in more efficient, plastic and adaptive brain to extend onto better
learning and performance in animal adults.
The brain is an important part of research to many, especially when in the investigation stage. There
was another study done, not on animals but on young adults with moderate aerobic training at
individual levels at certain intensities to see what different effects could possibly be. The effects that
the study was focusing on was obvious potential positive effects, specifically in cognitive function.
Lactate threshold is commonly used for labs, to test and see if the heart rate is high, or too high from
the intensity level that the workout is at. The threshold model comes from multiple studies that show
significant improvements among the individuals who were untrained. The results of the untrained

Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor ( Bdnf )
I. Abstract Brain–derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is known to increase synaptic efficacy and
promote neuronal survival. This protein is also a biomarker for impaired general cognitive function
and memory. Studies have bee conducted on mice measuring the concentration of circulating, also
called plasma or serum, BDNF in the blood of these animals when they exercise. Exercise has been
proven to increase cognitive function and links between a large level of BDNF in the bloodstream
and improved results on spatial/ cognitive testing of these rats shows that BDNF correlates to an
increase in memory and cognitive abilities. In this research, studies with varying results on BDNF
and exercise were taken and summarized in hopes of finding a ... Show more content on
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This protein circulates throughout the central nervous system and the concentrations can be
measured in platelets (Corripio, Gónzalez–Clemente, Jacobo, Silvia, Lluis, Joan, Assumpta, 2012).
BDNF neurotrophins bind with high affinity to its respective receptor, TrkB. These signals flow to
other protein enzymes downstream of that where they regulate synaptic functioning and maintain
cell viability (Tadahiro, Richards, Shingo, Naoki, Miyako, Haruki, Xin, 2014). Studies performed on
rats show a crucial link between BDNF release and memory/ cognitive functioning. After two
months on an HFS diet (high amounts of refined sugars and fats) the hippocampal level of BDNF
and spatial learning performance in these rats was noticeable reduced. Diet–related changes were
specific to the hippocampus because of its role in memory formation and that is one of the main
places BDNF is produced and circulates (Molteni, Barnard, Ying, Roberts, Gómez–Pinilla, 2002).
These decreased cognitive functions cooresponded to a decreased amount of BDNF measured in the
blood stream. It is also well documented through research that BDNF protects neurons from
degeneration due to the cascade of effects it has on other proteins and enzymes when it is released.
Therefore, the reductions of BDNF that are seen resulting from an HSF diet may decrease a neurons
ability to natural protect itself from degeneration (Molteni, et al., 2002). Inversely, an increased
amount of serum BDNF circulating in

Radical Behaviorists Essay
Assignment #1: Radical Behaviorist Critique
EDU501001VA016–1128–001 Learning Theories (K–12)
Instructor: Kelly Walton
November 3, 2012
Describe a learning outcome and a radical behaviorist approach to achieving that outcome
"Learning outcomes are statements that specify what learners will know or be able to do as a result
of a learning activity. Outcomes are usually expressed as knowledge, skills, or attitudes. Learning
outcomes should flow from a needs assessment. The needs assessment should determine the gap
between an existing condition and a desired condition. Learning outcomes are statements which
described a desired condition – that is, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As far as the sensory experiences, students will play a game that involves all the materials necessary
to build an ark. The students will feel all of the wood, the different animals, the water, and even the
dirt to get an understanding of how all of the materials were assembled to build the ark. The students
need to get an understanding of the size of the ark, the amount of animals, and how the actual ark
works on the water. In the behaviorist approach, there is little time given to the experiences of the
senses.
Critique the radical behaviorist approach from the perspective of meaningful learning and schema
theory.
"Types of learning that Ausubel examined include: reception learning vs. discovery learning and the
rote learning processes, such as memorization. However, to make these types of learning
meaningful, three things must occur: The learner must employ a meaningful earning set to any
learning task. The material to be learned must be potentially meaningful. The most important
condition for meaningful learning is what learners already know and how that knowledge relates to
what they are asked to learn. ... a schema is a data structure for representing the generic concepts
stored in memory. And, within schema, there are pieces known as schematas

Primates: From Food to Communication Essays
Over the course of millions of years, primates' evolutionary ancestors developed their brains to the
point that the brain became the most energy intensive organ in the body. Large brains are very costly
investments for an organism, both in terms of percentage of energy consumption, and in terms of the
period spent outside the womb in which the organism is unable to defend itself (Cheney & Seyfarth,
2007). Based on evolution scientists know this fact to be true. The only question remaining is: what
in the many varied environments of primates led to this overall increase in relative brain and skull
sizes?
Many scientists argue that only either social or ecological pressures that the worldwide primate
population faces led to the eventual ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Only once an organism has already attained a certain level of sustained basic survival in the world
can it begin to flourish and excel in the nuances of its own ecosystem and environment, by adding
the comparatively marginal benefits of social groups and societies. If social intelligence arose first,
it would almost definitely necessitate circumstances in which many of the social benefits of
reproduction were more influential on survival than food. In other words, an environment so
completely saturated by food and with such a limited number of natural predators, that the need for
ecological intelligence was almost completely eliminated, and that primates would be likely to
stumble on to food with only minimal effort or intent.
While there is a wealth of information in favor of each of these two hypotheses, it is unlikely that
one or the other is solely responsible for the development of primate intelligence. This is largely
because social and ecological factors are inextricably linked in many aspects of the lives of primates
because most primates live in some sort of social group which acquires food together and lives and
interacts together, rather than independently (Fletcher, 2008). Therefore the collection of food in a
group setting encompasses both social and ecological factors.
It is obvious that it would be advantageous for a primate species living in large social groups to
develop elevated social cognitive abilities.

The Amygdala And Social Cognition
1. What does the amygdala contribute to social cognition? Choose two or three specific social
cognitive processes and review the evidence in support of amygdala participation. (Please note that
you DO NOT need to read outside of our articles.
The importance of the amygdala in social cognitions has been examined in both primate and human
studies. Use of primates to study the social brain suggests that the amygdala contributes to social
cognition. Kluver and Bucy made large bilateral lesions in monkey brains made across the
amygdala, temporal neocortex, and surrounding structure. After the lesion, the animals engaged in
hypersexual behaviors, unusual tameness, and a lack of knowledge about emotional stimuli. Lesions
exclusively targeting the monkey's amygdala resulted in similar, but more subtle impairments. This
suggest that the amygdala may play a role in emotions elicited by social cues. Studies of the
amygdala's role in human social cognition suggest that the temporal lobes process socially relevant
facial information from humans. Emotions from facial expressions, in particular fear are projected to
the amygdala. Studies using FMRI to examine typical subjects and subjects with amygdala damage
support this theory. Individuals with amygdala damage have difficulty recognizing facial
expressions, specifically negative emotions such as fear.
Findings from animal and human studies further suggest that the amygdala processes stimuli that are
ambiguous and for which additional

Mediating Role Of Inflammation, Insulin Resistance And...
Mediating role of inflammation, insulin resistance and hypertriglyceridemia on the association
between obesity and cognitive function in older persons
Introduction
The increasing proportion of older persons in many developed societies due to population ageing
has been accompanied by a concurrent increase in obesity in this age group [1] [2]. Obesity is
associated with lower cognitive performance in early and mid adult life [3]. Further, mid–life
obesity is linked to development of cognitive impairment in late life [4] [5]. On the other hand, the
relationship between obesity and cognitive performance among in older persons is debatable. Few
studies have demonstrated a positive association between obesity and cognitive performance in
older persons [6] [7], while others have showed no evidence for an association [8], or an inverse
association [9] [10] [11] [12]. Recent studies indicate obesity is associated with structural changes in
brain areas targeted by neurodegeneration, such as hippocampus, frontal lobes and thalamus, in
cognitively intact subjects [13] [14].
It has been proposed that the link between obesity and cognition is not a direct effect but mediated
through a number of factors that lead to neuropathological changes [15]. Inflammation, insulin
resistance and hypertriglyceridemia have been described as the most likely causal mechanisms that
mediate this possible association [3] [16]. It is widely accepted that obesity is associated with
chronic low–grade

Women Contribution to Psychology
Women Contributions to Psychology Jovon Sutphin PSY/310 8 March 2013 Brandi Reynolds
Abstract The essay is written about Margaret Flow Washburn. The essay speaks of her background
from her early teenage years and progressing through her career as a psychologist, her battles of a
woman during an American period where women equal rights of educational progress was not the
same as men. The essay also speaks on the contributions to her field of psychology presenting
theories on the animal mind and her motor theory. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
in Psychology in 1894. Margaret Floy Washburn was considered a pioneer for her fight for equal
educational opportunities for women. She initially had encountered resistance to her academic
pursuit at Columbia University. Margaret had to wait three months before convincing the trustees to
let her attend Cattell's classes at Columbia. Some say Margaret success came because of the
contributing factor that her family was financially and emotionally supportive of her academic
pursuits and Rodkey (2010) stated, "the large family inheritance allowed for her to attend private
school, and which in turn led to her rapid completion of public school." Margaret was pushing her
career to limits during a period in American history when women were excluded from many
academic programs and did not hold prestigious positions. This was a reason she never married.
Women who married during this American period who worked in the academic field would be
expected to resign their position upon marriage. Not marrying put Margaret at advantage over other
women psychologist who did marry. This allowed her to hold numerous positions during her career,
becoming a well respected teacher and researcher. Margaret positions were assistant professor of the
Department of Psychology, professor of psychology, philosophy, and ethics, lecturer for social,
animal psychology, and undergraduate psychology professor. Not only did she hold different
positions through

Psy 360 Language Essay
Language Essay Ryan Butler Psychology 360 August 29, 2011 Professor Newlin LANGUAGE
Have you ever wondered how we speak? How about why our communication is considered a
language and other animal's communication is not considered language? A wide range of beliefs
exist on what defines language. Thus, by exploring the definition of language and lexicon,
evaluating language's key features, the four levels of language structure and processing, and the role
of language in Cognitive Psychology, an understanding of what language is becomes clear. Let us
begin by defining language and a term named lexicon. LANGUAGE AND LEXICON
DEFINITION One big question, when the subject of language comes up, is exactly what language
is. What ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
of a word. Also, the Yerkes (2011) text defines Lexicology as a study focusing on the meaning of
words. Thus, we see a lexicon as an area in the human brain which stores the meaning, and all
aspects, associated with a word. However, to reach the point where a lexicon may be used language
must be acquired. To acquire such a skill, one must master the four levels associated with language.
FOUR LEVELS OF LANGUAGE To constitute what a language is, four levels of language
structure have been established. Specifically, these levels of analysis include phenomes, words,
sentences and texts. According to the Willingham (2007) text, phenomes are a small unit of sound
which make up a word. A potential problem is if these words are mispronounced. For example,
slang changes from one area to another. When a person is thrown a new word, it throws them off on
the rest of the topic. If I say "I'm fixin to go downtown," some may only know "fixin" as literally
fixing something and not preparing or getting ready as "fixin" means in this context. This non
familiar use of a word may be confusing to oneself, but to the person saying the word, "fixin" is a
lexicon built into a vocabulary. Accents of foreigners may be another potential barrier. By
mishearing these phenomes and not understanding language due to this deficit, obtaining
meaningful language is difficult. Words themselves, and specifically the separation of words, may
be another potential barrier to language

The Complex Mechanism Underlying Cognitive Processing
Cognition includes a variety of high–level mental processing, such as memory, learning, reasoning
and language understanding. Theories construct frameworks to explain the complex mechanism
underlying cognitive processing. Nevertheless, in order to have a more thorough understanding of
cognition, it is necessary to study its neural basis inside where it locates: the brain. Neuroimaging is
now commonly used as a direct measure to investigate the neural basis of cognition by correlating
brain structure and activity with cognitive performance. However, neuroimaging does have a
number of considerable limitations. In this essay, it would be argued that despite the advantages of
neuroimaging over lesion and animal studies, its correlational nature and relatively poor spatial
resolution make other research methods in biopsychology remain vital for the study of cognition.
Since cognitive process is more correlated to functional rather than structural properties of the brain,
functional imaging would be focused in this essay.
While plasticity of brain makes it difficult to infer the normal functioning in healthy brains from
lesion studies, neuroimaging allows studies on healthy population. Lesion study refers to a method
that correlates behavioural disorder and location of brain injury to infer the function responsible by
the damaged region. Due to the plasticity of human brain, intact regions could adjust their functions
in response to brain lesions to aid the recovery of the

Animals Short Term Memory
"Animal cognition or comparative cognition's major purpose is to compare the cognitive processes
of different species, including humans. By making such comparisons, researchers hope to find
commonalities in the ways different species receive, process, store, and use information about their
world" (Mazur, 2013, p.225). Animals short term memory also known as working memory is
different for different animals based on if they use retrospective coding or prospective coding. For
example in short term memory experiments with pigeons researchers found that they use
prospective coding with is the ability to look forward such as if I hit this key then this key I will be
rewarded with a food pellet according to Mazur (2013). Long term memory are ... Show more
However, there are many ways that animals are able to learn to communicate such as the experiment
by Allen and Beatrice Garner who used American Sign Language to teach a chimpanzee to sign a
couple hundred words including the ability to put certain combinations according to Mazur (2013).
During this experiment the chimpanzee, Washoe, learned to put word combinations together
however, Washoe was unable to master grammar but the result was still effective in her ability to get
across her needs or wants. David Premack (1971b, 1983) improved this research by teaching his
chimpanzee, Sarah, to use colored magnetic shapes to form sentences. This started small and simple
and gradually they were able to get Sarah to put together quite complex sentences based on a
technique called one to one substitution according to Mazur (2013). This is accomplished by using
the same sentence with only a one word change from sentence to sentence once this is accomplished
they are able to change another word and so on until Sarah was able to master several complex
sentences including grammar, concepts, and plurals according to Mazur

Cognitive Neuroscience Essay
Cognitive Neuroscience is a comparatively new field focusing on exploring the relationship between
the human brain and the act of thinking, or cognition.
Essentially, cognition is the way in which our minds process information. The exact type of
information processed is varied and so cognition can cover a wide range of stimuli. It includes the
processing of things like visual perception and other sensory information like touch, feel and taste.
However, cognition can also be applied to things like emotional responses, preferences, and decision
making skills.
Some have described cognition as referring to," familiar psychological abilities such as seeing,
believing, imagining, guessing and inferring."
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B7c0n12dDm38VWN3eFRaWHUzTXM/view?pli=1) If you think
about it these skills are incredibly important to everyday life. As human beings ... Show more
Despite this persistent interest in the human thought process, Cognition has been nearly impossible
to study because of it's non–physical nature. Only recent technological advances have allowed for
quantifiable, information and academic study in the field of cognitive neuroscience.
This related field of technology is called Neuroimaging. Neuroimaging has been very important to
the expansion of Cognitive Neuroscience because it allows for a visual representation of how certain
sections of the brain respond to various outside stimuli. For example, functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging(fMRI) is currently being used in studies relating to how people purchase and
consume food. Brain activity is recorded and visualized as the mind reacts to things like brand
names or packaging

The Beast Within Case Study
Task 1: What is so remarkable about the human brain?
A History of the Brain – The Beast Within (Video 6)
The Beast Within refers to Phineas Gage who is commonly known for being one of the most
recognised patients in neuroscience as a result of his traumatic accident. His case had a great
influence on Psychology and early neurology because his observable behaviour after the incident
aided scientists in their theories of localization of brain function (Twomey, 2010).
In 1848, he suffered a devastating brain injury when an explosion caused an iron rod to pierce
through his left cheek and out through the top of his head, thus destroying his frontal lobe (Cherry,
2018). Astonishingly, he survived the incident, however his character changed profoundly. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Imitation creates a defined link to cognitive control and illustrates mental capabilities. This is a
characteristic seen in both humans and animals. For example, when a child mimmicks a certain
behaviour of an adult, it can be assumed that the child is able to interpret the movement and
understand that the two behaviours correspond (Zentall, 2002). It can therefore be established that
Billie, the wild bottlenosed dolphin who was taken to the aquarium for medical treatment and learnt
the "tailwalking" trick through merely observing her fellow pool mates, has neurons known as
"mirror neurons". This enabled a triggered mirror response to the behaviour of another. Due to the
anatomical correlation linking to the brains of both humans and animals it can be said that animals
have minds and similar cognitive capacties to those of humans (The Economist,

Pain And Perception Research Paper
Pain and Perception
What is the role of the senses in the brain's perception of pain? Do people still experience pain with
sensory deficits? How does each sense contribute to pain? Perception is the process of using
cognitive abilities and experience to process incoming stimuli and formulate a response (Goldstein,
2010). A stimulus is something that occurs in the environment. Any object or situation, can be
considered a stimulus or stimuli. Stimulus can be an action that is witnessed, such as with Ivan
Pavlov's dogs. Pavlov used a chute to release dog food and facilitate the salivary response. Another
example of a stimulus is a flying bird. The flying bird is perceived by the senses and our cognitive
processes are what enable people to recognize ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The direct pathway model shows that pain is caused when the brain receives a signal from
stimulation of the nociceptors in the skin (Goldstein, 2010). However, this is not the only way to
experience pain. The phenomenon named the Phantom Limb gives an example of this. Phantom
limb occurs in people that are missing one or more of their limbs; these amputees still experience
the limb, even though it is not attached to the body. When people experience phantom limb, they
often scratch at the missing limb or try walking on the limb that is not there. Amputees often swing
the limb with their body movements even though the limb is not there. Amputees often experience
pain, or a burning sensation or sharp stinging sensations. The phantom limb experience is in direct
confrontation with the direct pathway model; however, the phantom can be better explained by
another model; the gateway

The Brain's Catalyst Paper
Exercise: The Brain's Catalyst
An increasing body of evidence verifies the influence of exercise on energy and function of the
central nervous system (CNS) and how it can even help against neurological disorders. According to
these studies and reports, exercise has the astonishing ability to boost mental health, and modern
efforts are being dedicated to use this capability to reduce cognitive degeneration in aging and
psychiatric illnesses. In this paper, recent studies are examined in humans and animals
demonstrating the ability of exercise to uphold cognitive health across a lifespan. Accompanied with
the goal to develop a complete explanation of how the effects of exercise in the brain correlates to
the results provided from human studies. Improvements in neuroimaging have been vital in
recording the relationship between the intellectual benefit and action of particular neural networks in
the hippocampus and cerebral cortex involving individuals who practice exercise. Current
innovations in the imaging of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, exercise has proven an extraordinary ability to impact molecular passageways
involved with synaptic function, which is essential to learning and memory. Provided the core
relation amongst exercise and energy metabolism, it is not unforeseen that modulation of energy–
related molecular systems seems to be a leading tool in how exercise affects synaptic flexibility and
cognition as well. These discoveries complement with a budding course of studies, displaying that
the metabolism of energy at the cellular level is closely coupled with regulation of not only synaptic
plasticity, but neuronal excitability as well. Long story short, appropriate energy metabolism
involving the mitochondria is essential for harboring neuronal signaling events through the plasma
membrane, and exercise plays a fundamental role in facilitating these

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