An Archaeology of the East Midlands. Class 6 Radcliffe, Autumn 2014

An Archaeology of the
East Midlands
Class 6: The Medieval Town in the East
Midlands
Tutor: Keith Challis
east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Recap: Last Week
• 850-1100 Shaping the Landscape
• Themes in the Medieval Landscape
• 1300-1485
• Population decline
• Climate deterioration
• Economic troubles
• Settlement desertion
• Feudal collapse
• Laxton – a Village and its Landscape
• 850-1300
• The Manor
• Nucleation of settlement
• Open fields
• The Parish
• Feudal System

Class Summary
• Pre-Conquest Towns
– Towns Before the Vikings
– The Five Boroughs
– Reconquest Towns and Burhs in Mercia
• Post Conquest Towns
– Medieval Nottingham
• Coffee Break
• Field Archaeology: Reading the Landscape

Learning Outcomes
• Understand a little about the special nature and
problems of urban archaeology
• Appreciate some of the archaeological evidence for Late
Saxon and Medieval towns in the East Midlands
• Have a good understanding of the basic character of
Saxon and Medieval Nottingham
• Understand Map Regression and its uses in urban
studies
• Have a broad appreciation of the skills of use in field
archaeology

Section 1: Pre-Conquest
Towns

Town Before The Vikings
Life in the Ruins
• Evidence for Early and
Middle Saxon occupation
in Roman Town
(Leicester/Lincoln) but not
urban in character
• In Middle Saxon period
Roman Town may have
had special status
(Royal/Religious places)

Town Before The Vikings

The Five Boroughs
• The five boroughs of
Leicester, Lincoln,
Nottingham, Derby and
Stamford were the fortified
centres of Danish rule of
the midlands
• Archaeological evidence is
limited (eg only a few
objects from Leicester) and
often difficult to disentangle
Saxon and Danish works
(eg at Nottingham)

The Reconquest of Mercia
• New burghal towns associated
with the reconquest of Mercia
from the Vikings
• Newark (the New Work) a
small Late Saxon burhgal
town, perhaps associated with
Saxon reconquest of Mercia.
• Excavations of burghal
rampart at Slaughterhouse
Lane (Morrisons)
• Southwell – recent Late Saxon
finds from centre of town and
reanalysis of plan suggesting
origins as a Late Saxon
planned town (a burh)

Section 2: Post Conquest
Towns

Post Conquest Towns
• In general a paucity of
archaeological evidence for
EM towns as limited
excavation and much
destruction by cellars, etc.
• Excavation sometimes
focused on Roman
remains.
• Derby, limited excavation
at Full Street in 1970s
(medieval pits)
• More recent work at Court
House and on Westfield
Centre, but limited remains.

Post Conquest Towns
• Leicester and Lincoln better
served in terms of excavation.
• Lincoln focus on castle site
• Leicester recent excavations
during urban renewal
• Important regional town with
several specialist markets,
multiple religious houses,
industry, etc.
• Highcross Street, rare
excavation of a medieval street
frontage – occupied from
Roman period to the present
3.5m+ of stratified archaeology.
• 10-11th century timber buildings
• Cess pits, mash ovens, etc

Post Conquest Towns
Smaller Towns
• A complex hierarchy of medieval
smaller market towns across the
East Midlands
• Most with little or no excavation
evidence
• What there is often patchy and
inconclusive
• Chesterfield – some excavation
in 1970s and more recently,
focus on Roman period
• Newark, Late Saxon burghal
defenses and English Civil War
period is main focus

Post Conquest Towns
• Medieval Nottingham (Discussion)

Post Conquest Towns
• OOrriiggiinnss
• AAnngglloo--SSaaxxoonn BBuurrhh
• NNoorrmmaann TToowwnn
• HHiigghh MMeeddiieevvaall NNoottttiinngghhaamm

Post Conquest Towns

Post Conquest Towns
Anglo-Saxon Burh
• In existence before Viking
appropriation in 970s (?)
• Certainly in existence by 921
when recaptured by Edward the
Elder
• Early buildings (?pre burh) and
massive rampart and ditch at
Drury Hill
• Ditch at Drury Hill and Woolpack
Lane recut in C10
• Post conquest Saxon rampart
levelled and ditch filled in and
built over
Drury Hill

Post Conquest Towns
Anglo-Saxon Burh
• Bow sided timber halls at
Woolpack lane and Halifax
Place
• Three phases of pre 1000
activity
• Post 1000 reorganisation
and new buildings
• C1100 (Post conquest)
reorganisation of frontages
with corn drying ovens and
caves
Halifax Place

Post Conquest Towns
The Norman Borough
• Nottingham castle (1068)
• Norman Borough between
castle and Saxon Burh
• Persistent distinction between
Norman and Saxon traditions
• Burh defenses filled in and new
earthen rampart by early C12
• In old town evidence for internal
reorganisation c1150 and 1300
• Industry including malting,
pottery production (Goose Gate)
and corn drying (Fisher Gate)
Goose Gate

Post Conquest Towns
Later Medieval Nottingham
• 1267-1334 grants of
murage add stone wall to
rampart
• Cloth manufacture, iron
working, tanning and
pottery manufacture all
evidenced by documents
and archeology

Post Conquest Towns
Chapel Bar and The Town Wall
Chapel Bar, Thomas Cooper Moore
(1740s) Last surviving medieval town gate

Post Conquest Towns
1960s excavation and exposure during
redevelopment

Post Conquest Towns
Map Regression: Rediscovering a Town
Plan
•Start with the most recent map, such as a
modern Ordnance Survey map and gradually
work back through time comparing the relevant
maps.
•Map regression is made simpler if all the
maps have been reduced or enlarged to the
same scale. Maps can then be overlaid.
•A good starting point is to identify a number
of features or structures, which have not
changed, as this provides a framework from
which to start locating other features and
comparing maps.

Post Conquest Towns
1609 1610 1677
1744 1844 1861

Post Conquest Towns
Modern 1861

Post Conquest Towns
Work on small areas!
Modern 1861

Post Conquest Towns
Modern 1744

Post Conquest Towns
Modern 1610

Post Conquest Towns
Visualising stratigraphic relationships: town wall at
Chapel Bar Nottingham

Post Conquest Towns
Chapel Bar and The Town Defences
1960s
Now

• Coffee Break

Section 3: Field Archaeology
Reading the Landscape

Field Archaeology
Hoskins
Crawford

• Earthworks
• Artefacts
• Field shapes and boundaries
• Vegetation
• Rivers and waterways
• Tracks, roads and routeways
• Settlement plans
• Standing buildings
• Place names……
Fieldwork
Evidence

Earthworks
• Earthworks are amongst the most commonly studied
sources of information for non-invasive fieldwork.
• Can provide a great deal of information on the past use
and development of the landscape.
• But, need care to differentiate between naturally created
landforms (e.g. glacial moraines), modern land use (e.g.
road quarry pits) and cultural archaeological earthworks.
• Also, differentiating between archaeological site types
based solely on earthwork remains can be risky – some
monuments will be evidenced by the same earthwork
appearance. For example, a circular mound could
plausibly relate to a prehistoric barrow, a medieval
defensive earthwork, a windmill mound, a post-medieval
viewing platform or a 20th century military gun
emplacement.

Earthworks
• The identification and interpretation
of earthworks requires an
understanding of all types of
archaeological monuments, as well
as those resulting from other non-archaeological
practices.
• There are useful books to help in the
interpretation (e.g. Aston 1985,
Bowden 1999, Muir 2000, Ordnance
Survey 1963…..).
• Another important consideration is
that although areas of earthworks
may appear homogenous on the
ground today, they may in fact date
from a range of periods and
functions.
• ‘ The present view is like looking at
the stars – in one view many ages
are seen.’ (Aston 1985, 15).
After: Williamson 2002, p24

Earthworks
• As well as interpretation of date and function
based on morphological description, it is
also sometimes possible to construct
relative chronologies by analysing the
stratigraphic relationship between different
features.
• Vertical stratigraphy relies on the clear and
accurate identification of discrete earthwork
features, as well as their chronological
interrelationships.
• Horizontal stratigraphy is often less clearly
perceptible, in that it relies on there being
well defined differences between, for
example, the core nucleus of a settlement
site and later adjacent elements of a
different form, scale or angle.
• Deciphering the detailed relationships
between earthworks in this manner often
requires the use of site survey or aerial
After: Bowden 1999, fig 35 photography.

Field shapes and boundaries
• The shape of a field or property boundary
can be determined by a range of factors, for
example:
– Agricultural regime
– Topography
– Economy
– Soil quality
– Social hierarchy + control
• In many cases the shape of a field can lead
to a preliminary interpretation of date. For
example, complex coaxial networks are
often prehistoric, small irregular fields were
often created through the piecemeal
assarting of woodland or intake of common
land…
• Other forms of enclosures should be
considered – e.g. park boundaries.
After: Muir 2002, map 3.7 east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Hedges and Walls
• As well as the shape of the fields themselves, the
form, composition and construction of their boundaries
can provide important information.
• The availability of resources and suitability of the soils
dictates a considerable amount of the regional
variation in the distribution, although lots of other
contributing factors.
• Hedges are able to not only act as barriers in the
landscape but also to provide a regular supply of
wood.
• Drystone walling can be established in areas where
hedges would not survive due to poor soils and
exposure to wind.
• Should also consider boundary features can be aimed
at defining a border rather than an enclosure, for
example Offa’s Dyke or Hadrian’s Wall.

• The ecologist Max Hooper suggested in the 1960s that the
character and plant diversity of a hedge could be used to
provide information on the date of the boundary.
• He came up with a simplified equation that claimed that
the age could be calculated by counting the number of
species within a 30-yard length of a hedge and multiplying
this figure by 100 (e.g. 5 species = 500 years old) (the
‘Hooper hypothesis’).
• Based on assumption that hedges acquire new species
over time at a gradual but fairly constant rate.
• But, the technique only provides a margin of error of 200
years either way (therefore the example above could date
from 1300-1700 AD).
• And there are a number of significant problems with the
theory behind the approach itself. For example, records
show that many hedges were planted as multi-species
boundaries at the outset. Also, species can be lost from
hedges over time – for example Elms can displace existing
species and even eventually create a single species
hedge.
• But not completely useless – can look at species
composition to understand past landscapes (‘indicator
species’ can show woodland edge hedges). Need to
consider regional/local context.
Dating
Hedges?

Dating
Walls?
‘Wall-to-Wall History’
Richard Hodges
examination of Roystone
Grange in Derbyshire
included the creation of a
typology of drystone
walling, checked through
construction method,
association with other
cultural features or
excavation.
1 2
3 4 5

Ecology and
Vegetation
• ‘Plants and animals do not enter into the
story merely as part of the environment,
as scenery in the theatre of landscape.
They are actors in the play; each has its
own character, which needs to be
understood.’ (Rackham, 2000).
• As this quote from Rackham suggests, a
thorough understanding of ecology
allows a deep understanding of the
nature and development of a landscape.
• Factors to consider are the distribution,
nature and species composition of:
woodland/wood-pasture, indicators of
tree management, fields and their
boundaries, grassland, heathland, moors
and water bodies.
• An excellent reference for understanding
historical ecology is Oliver Rackham’s
‘History of the Countryside’.
After: Rackham 2000 east-midlands-archaeology.blogspot.co.uk

Ecology and Vegetation
• Calculating the age of ancient trees is
problematic, especially since they are
often hollow so the oldest wood is not
available for dendrochronology or C-14
dating.
• A crude formula for calculating age is that
free-standing timber trees (especially
oaks) gain approximately 2cm of
circumference each year of growth.
• But also have to take account of a wide
range of factors, such as competition with
other plants, species, climate and effects
of management strategies such as
pollarding (reduces growth rate).
After: Muir 2001

Vegetation
changes as
archaeological
indicators

Structures and Buildings
• Standing buildings / structures
• Partially extant structures (e.g.
foundations)
• Footprints and earthworks (e.g.
hut platforms)

Surface finds • On ploughed arable land there is often a good chance of
finding artefacts. Pasture is obviously not usually suited.
• The distribution of the finds can then be used to give an
impression of the subsurface archaeology. Isolated
artefacts likely to result from domestic refuse material
scattered as manure, dense concentrations suggest
potential occupation?
• The ideal conditions are following rainfall and in winter
when the vegetation/crop is low and have not started
growing.
• Factors to consider include:
– Method of collection (systematic or random)?
– Positioning of artefacts?
– What type of artefacts are likely to survive local soil
conditions?
– Crop type and growth.
– Depth of ploughing and time since ploughing
– Colour of soil
– Degree of movement from original location (i.e. not in
situ finds but by how much?)
• It is important to remember that the presence of artefacts
within topsoil or on the ground surface almost certainly
means that the archaeology is being eroded.

Sketch
Mapping
• Sketch mapping of archaeological
remains identified during fieldwork
is an important skill.
• Features should be represented
with care, at least to an
approximate scale (pacing).
• Maps should be well annotated
and include a title, description,
orientation, scale bar, and a key if
required.
• English Heritage drawing
conventions should be used
wherever possible.
After Muir 2001

Position and Orientation
• Accurate positioning of identified
archaeology is also essential –
although the level of accuracy will
differ depending on the purpose and
level of the survey.
• A central grid reference obtained
from a handheld GPS is adequate
for recording the basic location of a
site (or multiple points for a large
area).
• Alternatively, the position can be
recorded onto a paper map through
pacing/taping from field boundaries.
• A compass is essential for proper
orientation of a site and any features
within it.

Field Notes
• A detailed field description is essential and should include
all of the details listed in the relevant English Heritage
survey level written description information. Text should
be linked into sketch maps and photographs wherever
possible.
• These notes can be made on an annotated plan, in a
notebook or into a voice recorder – but should be clearly
legible / audible and copied up as soon as you return from
the field.
• Other important considerations are the landscape context
of the site (e.g. intervisibility), preservation condition /
erosion, visible chronology, etc.

Ground Photography • Ground photography is primarily used to
record the appearance or
interrelationships of specific features
within a site, or to record the broader
landscape context.
• Factors to consider are the time of
day/year, the weather, and the quality of
the camera.
• The viewpoint should be carefully
selected to maximise the information
obtained (for record shots especially).
Elevated positions are often useful for
clarifying the overall pattern in large
areas.
• Wherever possible use a measured
ranging rod for scale – and always align
the rod in the same manner for your
photographs (e.g. red to the left). If no rod
is available then improvisation is
necessary (e.g. a person, a trowel, etc).
• Photographs need to be accompanied by
notes – recording what they refer to and
where they were taken. At its simplest
level this can be recording the position
and orientation of a photograph on a
sketch map.

Further Study
Assignment 6: The Post Medieval East Midlands
What changes overtook the East Midlands in the period 1600-1900?
Think about broad changes affecting towns and the countryside and in
particular how each are best evidenced (by archaeology or by
documentary history?)
Can you come up with one solid example of significant change
(enclosure/industrial growth/population movement, etc.) that is
evidenced best by archaeology?
Use the chapters from the East Midland Research Framework on the
website as your guide.

An Archaeology of the East Midlands. Class 6 Radcliffe, Autumn 2014

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