What Role Does The Brain Play In The Nervous System

What Role Does The Brain Play In The Nervous System
The role/job of the system
The nervous system is the network of our body, it keeps everything alive by:
Responsible for coordinating all bodily activities
The transmission of nerve impulses between the different sections of the body through nerve cells
and fibres.
Collecting sensory input of environments around, processing and categorizing sensory input,
responding to that sensory input when put into future situations
The neuron pathway of our reflex arc, sending signals to the spinal cord for motor neurons to reflex
from certain situations.
Controls the autonomic system which regulate internal organs as well as our somatic system which
regulates bodily and skeletal movements.
The major structures and their functions two major structures – ... Show more content on
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Brain is the center of our thoughts. the PNS regulates the nerves connecting to the rest of body,
sends info from senses to brain for memory, nerve cells carrying instructions to brain, controls
muscles and joints, responsible for reflexes.
The pathway a nerve impulse travels throughout the body from stimulus to response
External stimulus first is triggered by sound, touch, sight, taste, smell. That excites the sensory
receptor and transfers the signal through sensory neurons to the spinal cord which then immediately
goes to the brain for it to make a decision which can be conscious or unconscious. After the brain
has decided, it sends the information back down to the spinal cord, through the peripheral nerves to
a neuromuscular junction (muscle tissue is highly excitable) the signal then leave the nerve and
spread over the around the muscle causing it to contract or expand.
Stimulus – sensory receptors – sensory neurons – spinal cord – brain – spinal cord – neuromuscular
junction – skeletal muscle. when unconsciously reflexings to something the body deems a threat or
danger, the neuron pathway won't go up the brain, but just from the spinal cord then to the
neuromuscular junction and so
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The Stages Of Alzheimer 's Disease
Currently, in the world, there are about 47.5 million people living with the neurological disorder
known as Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's disease was discovered by a German scientist known as Alois
Alzheimer's in the 21st century. Alzheimer's is a disease which develops in many people around
mid–adulthood. Alzheimer's disease is when an individual's brain starts to degenerate because of
neuronal loss and also when the neurotransmitters decline their function. Alzheimer's is when an
individual is losing their memories because of their neurons touching each other and their messages
are going everywhere because there is no synaptic gap. This is a serious problem. The three stages
of Alzheimer's disease and they are preclinical, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer's
dementia. There are multiple changes in the brain before and after Alzheimer's. According to the
article, Neuropsychological and neurobiological markers of the preclinical stage of Alzheimer's
disease, the structure of cerebral volume reduces and there is deterioration to hippocampus. The
hippocampus is part of the limbic system which is associated with memory. Many mild cognitive
impairment also known MIC patients have identical brain imaging to the Alzheimer's patients. The
common aspect in both group patients is that there are similar metabolism and activity levels;
however, Alzheimer's patients show a little decreased level of metabolism and activity levels. Many
studies according to neuropsychological and

Alzheimer's Research Paper
What is Alzheimer's Disease Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia. Dementia
is a chronic or persistent disorder of the mental processes caused by brain disease or injury and
marked by memory disorders, personality changes, and impaired reasoning. There are two types of
Alzheimer's disease: early onset which occurs between the ages of 30 to 60, and late onset which
occurs after the age of 60. Late onset is the most common type. The National Center for Health
Statistics lists Alzheimer's as the 6th leading cause of death for people over 65 years and older.
Signs and Symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease The onset of AD is subtle, and symptoms may develop
very slowly over a period of several years. The three stages of Alzheimer's are as follows:
preclinical, a period when amyloid plaques are accumulating, and nerve cell changes are occurring,
but in this stage, there are no clinical symptoms; mild cognitive impairment, a time when memory
problems are noticed but not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Now the diagnosis of Alzheimer's is made by ruling out other causes for signs and symptoms. The
patient and family members may be asked questions about overall health, past medical problems,
ability to carry out daily activities, and changes in behavior and personality. The medical team may
conduct tests of memory, problem solving, attention, counting, and language. A CT scan will show
shrinking of the cerebral cortex, however this is not shown in the early stages. A PET scan and MRI
provide structural and metabolic information about the brain. An electroencephalography can detect
slower than normal brain waves. However, none of these diagnostic tests is specific to AD. The
diagnosis is made by validating mental decline. Research now is focused on molecular
neuroimaging technologies that can detect biologic evidence of AD before there are structural brain
changes. Genetic testing to identify early–onset familial type is

Case Study Alzheimer's Disease
A Look at Alzheimer's Disease: Onset, Care, and Treatment
At some point in our lives we have probably all known someone that had or has dementia. Dementia
is a generalized term that refers to the progressive, irreversible decline in mental function. Dementia
is a disease that not only affects the patient but also affects the patient's loved ones. Caring for a
loved one with dementia can be very difficult and heart breaking but there are lots of resources to
help.
Dementia is caused by irreversible damage to the patient's brain cells and the cells ability to
communicate with one another. There are no specific tests to diagnose dementia. Patients are
diagnosed based on a careful medical history, a physical, blood work, and talking to a doctor ...
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However, there are treatments, both drug and non–drug, that can slow the progression of symptoms.
Drug therapies include cholinesterase inhibitors and NMDA receptor antagonists. Different
medications are prescribed at different stages of the disease. Donepezil (Aricept), which prevent the
breakdown of acetylcholine, a chemical in the brain that helps with learning and memory, is a
cholinesterase inhibitor that can be prescribed to treat a patient at any stage of the disease. Although
Aricept can be used at any stage, drugs like Rivastigmine (Exelon) and Galantamine (Razadyne),
also cholinesterase inhibitors, are only approved to treat the disease when it is mild or moderate.
Memantine (Namenda) is a NMDA receptor antagonists that is used to treat moderate to severe
Alzheimer's and improves some patient's ability to complete daily tasks. Namzaric is a drug that
combines the cholinesterase inhibitor, donepezil (Aricept), and NMDA receptor antagonists,
memantine (Namenda), in one drug. Along with medications that help with mental symptoms there
are medications like tricyclic antidepressants (trazodone), benzodiazepines (lorazepam),
antipsychotics (risperidone), and sleeping pills (zolpidem), that help with sleep issues that come
with Alzheimer's.
Alzheimer's disease is a complicated disease that research is still trying to figure out. Although age
is the greatest risk factor,

The Effects Of Resveratrol And Its Effect On The Risk Of...
ABSTRACT Resveratrol (3,4 ',5–trihydroxystilbene) is a naturally occurring phytochemical present
in red wine, grapes, berries, chocolate and peanuts. Clinically, resveratrol has exhibited significant
antioxidant, anti–inflammatory, anti–viral, and anti–cancer properties. Although resveratrol was first
isolated in 1940, it was not until the last decade that it was recognised for its potential therapeutic
role in reducing the risk of neurodegeneration, and Alzheimer 's disease (AD) in particular. AD is
the primary cause of progressive dementia. Resveratrol has demonstrated neuroprotective effects in
several in vitro and in vivo models of AD. Apart from its potent antioxidant and anti–inflammatory
roles, evidence suggests that resveratrol also facilitates non–amyloidogenic breakdown of the
amyloid precursor protein (APP), and promotes removal of neurotoxic amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides, a
critical step in preventing and slowing down AD pathology. Resveratrol also reduces damage to
neuronal cells via a variety of additional mechanisms, most notably is the activation of NAD+–
dependent histone deacetylases enzymes, termed sirtuins. However in spite of the considerable
advances in clarifying the mechanism of action of resveratrol, it is unlikely to be effective as
monotherapy in AD due to its poor bioavailability, biotransformation, and requisite synergism with
other dietary factors. This review summarizes the relevance of resveratrol in the pathophysiology of
AD. It also highlights

Alzheimer's Technology
Alzheimer's is an irreversible disease that affects the brain and how a person's memory and thinking
works. In the future, scientists hope to create a drug that would treat the disease or delay the process.
There is no cure for alzheimer's, but there are now drugs to help mask the symptoms of alzheimer's,
and various technology that people can use to help them with daily life. There was not always
technology to help people with alzheimer's disease, but now there are various technological devices,
such as various automated reminders, clocks and calendars, medication aids, location devices, and
communication aids, and many to come in the future. Before, technology and medications, people
suffering from alzheimer's often did not live the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the article What We Know Today About Alzheimer's Disease it says, "Alzheimer's medications
can temporarily slow the worsening of symptoms and improve quality of life for those with
Alzheimer's and their caregivers.". The four medications that the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration has approved: donepezil, galantamine, memantine, and rivastigmine. However,
donepezil and rivastigmine can be used with all stages, while galantamine is used with mild to
moderate, and memantine is used with moderate to severe. Donepezil galantamine, and rivastigmine
work by slowing down the process of a key neurotransmitter. Memantine works by regulating the
activity of glutamate. This process is very important for cell signaling, learning, and memory.
Excess glutamate is released from damaged cells, which can lead to chronic overexposure to
calcium, which can speed up cell damage. As far as technology, there are many different types of
technological devices that people with alzheimer's can use to help with daily life, such as various
automated reminders, clocks and calendars, medication aids, location devices, and communication
aids. Many of the technology devices used have sensors to detect if something is wrong and it will
alarm to warn the person and/or their caretaker. While there are many medications and technology
that people can use to help people go about their daily lives, scientists are already working on new
things to help improve to future of alzheimer's

Ebixa By Lundbeck
Ebixa by Lundbeck Market Development and Process Improvement Report Team Assignment #1 –
CENG 4310 Sheila Wright, Bradley Chauvin, Henry Lively, Joseph Miller, Thomas Zekoski
September 21, 2015 Part 1 – Market Development Plan The trade name given to the focused product
is Ebixa by Lundbeck, the drugs common name is ?memantine?, and the active substance is
memantine hydrochloride. Figure 1: Molecular structure of memantine hydrochloride Ebixa is an
Alzheimer?s medication, used to block NMDA (N–methyl–D–aspartate) receptors in the brain. This
blocking process improves neural communication and reduces the symptoms of Alzheimer?s. Ebixa
is used for patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer?s, and can only be attained with a
prescription. It is most commonly found as a tablet in doses from 5 mg to 20 mg. Below is a list of
products with the same active ingredient as Ebixa, as well as each medication?s lowest vendor
selling price. Company Product Name Vender Selling Price (USD/10mg) Alternative Applications
Merz Akatinol 95 Using bathroom Forest Namenda 118.99 Using bathroom Lundbeck Ebixa 101.77
Using bathroom Generic Memantine Hydrochloride 55 Using bathroom ... Show more content on
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The main alternative products to memantine are a series of cholinesterase inhibitors. These include
donepezil, sold under the brand name Aricept? , rivastigmine, sold under the brand name Exelon? ,
and galantamine, sold under Razadyne?. These drugs work by preventing the degradation of
acetylcholine, which is a chemical useful for memory and thought. Since these drugs all work in a
similar manner, scientist found no significant difference between the drugs in clinical trails.
However, trials have shown that these drugs all work better in the earlier stages of

Treatment For The Time Being, There Is No Cure For Ad Essay
For the time being, there is no cure for AD. Current management involves treatment for cognitive,
non–cognitive and behavioural symptoms only. The aims of the treatment are to promote
independence and alleviating behavioural, cognitive, non–cognitive and psychological symptoms.
Those aims are made to improve AD patient's quality of life and well–being, which in return can
increase well–being of caregiver too. High cost spend because of CB will be reduce, rate of
hospitalisation will be lessen and admission to NHP will be delayed.
Pharmacological interventions of treating AD are by using anti–dementia drugs. Anti–dementia
drugs are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) and memantine. AChEIs which are donepezil,
galantamine and rivastigmine have marketing authorisation in UK for treatment of mild to moderate
AD. AChEIs work by preventing acetylcholinesterase enzyme from breaking down acetylcholine so
that the concentration and duration of acetylcholine at neurotransmission sites increase [1].
Donepazil is a reversible, specific AChEI. Galantamine is a reversible inhibitor of
acetylcholinesterase and it can modulate activity at nicotinic receptor. Rivastigmine is a reversible
non–competitive inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. AChEI can cause
unwanted side effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and dizziness. Treatment should be
started at low dose and the dose can be titrate up gradually depend on response and tolerability
Meanwhile memantine

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Nootropics
Attention Deficit Disorder is diagnosed two ways: with or without hyperactivity. The inclusion of
hyperactivity is what makes the difference between a diagnosis of ADD or ADHD. With children
between the ages of 6 and 12 being the most commonly diagnosed ages, it has also been known to
continue as they get older. With school–aged children being affected the most, it can become
severely difficult for the student and teacher to work out a solution. Sure, the children can be given
the commonly prescribed medications, but they don't get excluded from possible dependency or
addiction. When it comes to prescribing medications for ADHD, physicians are more apt to stick to
the type that they know will work and these are Adderall and Ritalin. Although these two drugs
work for ADHD, many people today are starting to explore options that involve the use of
alternatives that pose no adverse reactions or long–term effects. To help assist the many people
affected by this disorder who want a safer alternative, we will explore the many benefits that can be
obtained by using nootropics. Among the many alternatives, the best types available include the
nootropics noopept, racetam, and modafinil. These three nootropics have proven to be very effective
at improving cognition, but each ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Besides that, it has also been used as an alternative form of treatment for depression. However, the
amount of research is limited when it comes to its ability to treat ADHD. With that being said, there
has been one study conducted on 28 ADHD diagnosed children to determine selegiline's effect on
ADHD. The results showed a significant decrease in ADHD symptoms and side effects related to
Selegiline usage.With this being preliminary research, it has demonstated its ability to be a choice in
the treatment of

How Alzheimer's Disease Affects The Brain
As a disease resulting in the loss of high cognitive functions, the Alzheimer's disease affects brain
cells and the nervous system of the body. A better understanding of the neurotransmitter, drug use to
treat the disorder, and the possible side effects will bring reasoning to the possible actions of a
person with the disease.
As the progressive disease take over the body, the ability to function, understand, and comprehend
becomes an issue. On a neurological level, the disease affects the brain causing senile plaques and
neurofibrillary tangles to build and connect between the cells. The plaques contain proteins that are
called beta–amyloid that clump together between the nerve cells. On the other hand, tangles are
twisted strands that keep ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cholinesterase inhibitors are used to breakdown the acetylcholine, which is a neurotransmitter that
is connected to memory, by blocking the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. The donepezil, rivastigmine,
and the galantamine are three commonly prescribed cholinesterase inhibitors. The known side
effects are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, upset stomach, and dizziness (Wattmo, Londos, & Minthon,
2014). To block the NDMA receptors, the memantine is prescribed to improve cognition and
regulate the glutamate that acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain around the learning and memory
area. Excessive glutamate could cause damaged, killed nerves. Common side effects of memantine
consist of dizziness, confusion, and headaches (Koch, Szecsey, & Haen, 2004). Additional
medication can be prescribed to patients with symptoms such as depression, psychosis, disturbed
sleep, and apathy. Howes (2014) supported the commonly used drug treatments as he compared AD
to the issues of the cardiovascular disease. The reduced blood flow to the brain, the reduction of
oxygen, clogged arteries and vessels could damage the brain cells, making the Alzheimer's disease
worse. The treatment of AD reduces some of the effects of the cardiovascular (Howes,

Essay On Alzheimers
Alzheimer's is a chronic disease that as of 2017 does not have a cure, but there are certain treatment
options that can help to reduce one's AD symptoms. There are drug and non–drug treatments that
assist in memory loss, treatment in behavioral changes, treatment for sleep changes, and self care
(16). The FDA has approved of two types of medication for memory loss– cholinesterase inhibitors
and memanine. Apart from helping lower the symptoms of memory loss, these drugs also assist in
helping with confusion and cognitive thinking that are associated with AD. These drugs help reduce
the damage that AD does on the brain and helps to stabilize the brain as well by altering chemicals
like neurotransmitters in the brain that transport messages ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
AD patients also experience restless nights; in fact studies on AD patient's brain waves show that
there is a decreased amount of both dreaming and non–dreaming sleep stages. On the other hand,
individuals might feel drowsy during the day (sundowning). Studies show that in the severe stages
of AD, patients spend about 40% of their time awake in bed and most of their daytime sleeping.
There are a few non–drug treatments that can help AD patients with their sleepless nights. Some of
the multiple exercises that a patient can do involve eating at routine hours, avoiding alcohol, avoid
taking medication (like cholinesterase inhibitors) directly before bed, and mentally training oneself
to not be awake in bed (rather if a patient wakes up they should directly get up, thus only using the
bed for sleep). These exercises help regulate AD patient's schedules by improving their sleep
routine, sleep environment, and avoiding daytime drowsiness (27). Though patients and care takers
prefer to use non–drug approaches to sporadic sleeping cycles, sometimes these methods don't work
and drugs need to be applied instead which have uncomfortable and inconvenient side effects.
Because of the many side effects, doctors first prescribe patients with low doses of the drug and
advise the patient to go slow with the drug. One of the most common drugs that doctors prescribe
for sleepless AD patients is benzodiazepines, or benzos, which help

Alzheimer 's Disease And How It Affects The Brain
This research paper will be about Alzheimer's disease and how it affects the brain. It will also tell
you many other things about Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's disease is named after the German physician
Dr. Alois Alzheimer, who first discovered Alzheimer's in 1906. It is the most common form of
dementia, and it is found in around sixty to eighty percent of all cases of dementia. Alzheimer's is a
progressive disorder (physical ailment whose course in most cases is the worsening, growth, or
spread of the disease), and it is characterized by large loss of nerve cells and the connection between
them, along with change in personality and behavior. Its course is never ending, but pretty
predictable. People who are on the upwards of sixty–five ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
As other areas of the brain are affected, the victim becomes more bedridden, and eventually requires
total care, after a while the person becomes entirely irresponsive to the outside world. The causes of
Alzheimer's disease are still for the most part unknown. Scientists can't quite pinpoint the exact
causes of Alzheimer's. But for the last twenty years the cause getting the most attention is that it is
caused by an excess amount of insoluble fragments of beta–amyloid, then that leads to the loss of
connection between brain cells, then eventually the death of said brain cells. (American Scientist,
44) The risk factors can increase the possibility of having Alzheimer's, but isn't exactly linked to
cause Alzheimer's. Age, genetics, gender, cardiovascular disease, having down syndrome,
depression, immune system malfunctions, endocrine (hormonal) disorders, slow–acting viruses or
bacteria, vitamin deficiencies, exposure to electromagnetic fields and accumulation of metals such
as zinc, copper, iron and aluminum in the body, or previous head injuries are the risk factors. If
you're older, a female, and have had other people in your bloodline with Alzheimer's then your
chances of getting Alzheimer's are significantly increased. The chances of getting Alzheimer's
doubles every five years after the age 65. Some research says that the chances of getting Alzheimer's

Alzheimer's Disease Research Paper
There is no cure for this particular Alzheimer disease or other regular or common kind of dementia
(Mayeux, & Sano, 1999). Researchers are as yet to understand completely, how this disease leads to
memory loss and different issues with thinking and behaviour. Only few treatments available for
Alzheimer disease which can make a difference where it helps to ease symptoms, or slow down their
progression in some people for the time being (Mayeux, & Sano, 1999 ; Whitehouse, 1991).
Medication is the main treatment that is frequently used to treat Alzheimer disease. This medication
treatment are aimed to treat primary cognitive symptoms in Alzheimer Disease (AD), secondary
behavioral disturbances that occur frequently like sleep disturbance, agitation,

Alzheimer 's Disease, Cancer, And Stroke
First described by German physician, Alois Alzheimer, in the early 1900s, Alzheimer's disease is
now the fourth most prevalent cause of death– after heart disease, cancer, and stroke (AD– a guide
for families). Most common in adults 65 or older, Alzheimer's disease (AD) is regarded as "a loss of
intellectual abilities sufficient enough to interfere with everyday social and occupational
functioning" (AD– a guide for families). Victims of AD are unable to think abstractly, find
similarities and differences between related words, and have trouble defining words and concepts.
Other common symptoms include disturbances in language, or aphasia, an inability to carry out
motor activities, or apraxia, and a failure to recozinge or identify ... Show more content on
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Some physicians also prescribe high doses of vitamin E for cognitive changes. The most common
treatments today are cholinesterase inhibitors (FDA–approved drug), memantine (FDA–approved
drug), vitamin E, and many alternative herbal treatments including caprylic acid, coconut oil, and
coral calcium. With all of the treatments out there though, it is difficult to discern which is the best
one. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the different treatments available today in
order to find the best line of treatment for AD. In order to do so, we will be looking at the efficacy,
side effects, cost effectiveness, availability, dosage, and those most likely to benefit from each
treatment. Before we can look at these treatments, however, we must first look at how the brain
communicates in order to understand how these treatment work. The brain is made up of a network
of nerve cells, or neurons, that communicate with each other through electrical impulses. These
neurons communicate at synapses, or where two neurons "meet." At the synapses, small bursts of
chemicals called neurotransmitters carry information from one cell to another. AD disrupts this
process, damaging the brain's communication network by destroying synapses and killing neurons
(http://www.alz.org/research/science/alzheimers_disease_treatments.asp#future). Current FDA–
approved cholinesterase inhibitors help to combat the destruction of

Dementia Is Not A Disease But Rather A Group Of Symptoms...
Dementia is not a disease but rather a group of symptoms caused by disorders that affect the brain
(National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, n. d). The hallmark of dementia, memory
impairment, is accompanied by deficits in language, motor function, recognition, or executive
function (Stahl, 2013). The most common forms of dementia are caused by Alzheimer's disease
(AD), vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (Prince et al.,
2013). The risk of dementia increases with age. Dementia is rare below the age of sixty but affects
about 17% of those between 80 and 85 years of age, 33% of those between 85 and 90 years old, and
50% of those over 90 years of age (Tom et al., 2015). As the ... Show more content on
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The client scored 18 out of 30 on the Mini–Mental State Exam which suggests moderate dementia.
The client displayed tangential speech, restricted affect, disorientation to time and event, and
impaired impulse control during the clinical interview. The diagnosis is major neurocognitive
disorder due to Alzheimer's disease (presumptive). Treatment Plan Decision One In decision point
one, the choices provided are to initiate (a) rivastigmine 1.5 mg orally twice daily with an increase
to 3 mg orally twice daily in two weeks, (b) donepezil 5 mg orally at bedtime, or (c) galantamine 4
mg orally twice daily. All of the medications are cholinesterase inhibitors and are considered first–
line pharmacotherapy for AD (Yiannopoulou & Papageorgiou, 2012). In randomized controlled
trials, rivastigmine, donepezil, and galantamine showed no significant difference in efficacy
(Yiannopoulou & Papageorgiou, 2012). Donepezil was selected. Once–daily dosing has been shown
to have better adherence than twice daily (Ryan et al., 2014). Galantamine and rivastigmine have a
higher incidence of gastrointestinal adverse effects than donepezil (Noetzli & Eap, 2013;
Yiannopoulou & Papageorgiou, 2012). The medication, donepezil, was chosen to reduce the client's
behavioral symptoms and slow the progression of neurodegeneration. The client returned to the
clinic in four weeks accompanied by his son. The client's son reports no improvement in the

What Is Amlodipine Impurity?
Amlodipine Impurity–D 3–ethyl 5–methyl 2–((2–aminoethoxy)methyl)–4–(2–chlorophenyl)–6–
methylpyridine–3,5–dicarboxylate
Amlodipine Impurity–E diethyl 2–((2–aminoethoxy)methyl)–4–(2–chlorophenyl)–1,4–dihydro–6–
Amlodipine Impurity–F dimethyl 2–((2–aminoethoxy)methyl)–4–(2–chlorophenyl)–1,4–dihydro–6–
Amlodipine Impurity–I 3–ethyl 5–methyl 2–((2–aminoethoxy)methyl)–4–(4–chlorophenyl)–1,4–
dihydro–6–methylpyridine–3,5–dicarboxylate
Aripiprazole n–oxide 7–{4–[4–(2,3–dichlorophenyl)piperazin–1–yl]butoxy–n–oxide}–3,4–
dihydroquinolin–2(1H)–one.
Aspartane Impurity–A 2–(5–benzyl–3,6–dioxopiperazin–2–yl)acetic acid.
Atenolol Impurity–A 2–(4–hydroxyphenyl)acetamide
Atenolol Impurity–B 2–(4–((oxiran–2–yl)methoxy)phenyl)acetamide ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Memantine 1–chloro–3,5–Dimethyl Adamantane 1–chloro–3,5–dimethyladamantane
Memantine 1–Hydroxy–3,5–Dimethyl Admanatane 3,5–dimethyladamantan–1–ol.
Memantine Impurity–D 1–Methyl Adamanatane
Memantine Impurity–E 1,3,5–Trimethyl adamentine
Memantine N–Formyl memantine 1–formyl memantine
Memantine 1–hydroxy 3,5–dimethyl adamantane 1–hydroxy 3,5–dimethyl adamantane
Metamizole Acetyl metamizole N–(2,5–dihydro–2,3–dimethyl–5–oxo–1–phenyl–1H–pyrazol–4–
yl)acetamide
Metamizole Impurity–A N–(2,5–dihydro–2,3–dimethyl–5–oxo–1–phenyl–1H–pyrazol–4–
yl)formamide
Metamizole Impurity–C

Dementia Research Paper
Degenerative disease experienced at a higher rate among Japanese Americans Dementia is defined
as a chronic or persistent disorder of the mental processes caused by brain disease or injury and
marked by memory disorders, personality changes, and impaired reasoning. However, what most of
us do not know is that dementia is a general disorder that has a few subcategories. Those categories
include Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia and frontal–temporal dementia, to name a few.
Although statistically dementia is experienced at a similar rate amongst Japanese–Americans and
caucasian Americans, their rates in the subtypes are different. Japanese–American's, most typically
Japanese–American men, experience a higher rate in vascular dementia. Vascular dementia is
attributed by a lack of blood supply to the brain. Although Japanese–Americans experience vascular
dementia at a higher rate than others, the reasoning behind that is still unexplained. Health care
disparities implicated in Dementia ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Due to the Japanese–American beliefs about dementia, it could inhibit them to receive help or
treatment. Specifically, some Japanese–Americans believe dementia to be a sign of mental disorder.
Because this is considered shameful, one would not seek help in fear of bringing shame to their
family. It is also customary for Japanese–Americans not to share their secrets with anyone, this
includes telling a doctor about signal symptoms one may be having and therefore, that person will
not seek answers, help or treatment. Another disparity includes their view on dementia being
inevitable or shikata ganai ("you can't help it"). Because they believe that it is an unavoidable
disorder, this would hinder an individual to seek

Treatment For Alzheimer's Disease
The way one think, act, or even knowing when something is hot is all a part of the Nervous system.
The Nervous system is a complex network and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and
spinal cord to various parts of the body. The Nervous system comes with many diseases, for
example, Alzheimer's disease and Epilepsy.
Alzheimer's disease is a progressive that destroys memory and other important mental functions.
Alzheimer's disease is caused by a combination of genetic, lifestyle and environment factors that
affect the brain over time. Other risk factors that can cause Alzheimer's disease is age, which is one
of the greatest risk. Down syndrome, gender, mild cognitive impairment, past head trauma, and
heart health.
Symptoms of Alzheimer's ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Symptoms can vary depending on the type of seizure. The signs of Epilepsy is the way someone
acts. You can see them having a seizure.
Treatment for this disease is medication, called anti–epileptic medication. Most people can be
seizure–free by taking this medication. Surgery is also an option for Epilepsy. The type of surgery
depends on where the seizure originates. Another treatment is therapies and diet.
To diagnose your condition, your doctor will review your symptoms and medical history. After that
the doctor will order several tests to diagnose epilepsy such as, neurological examination, blood test,
electroencephalogram(EEG), computerized tomography(CT) scan, magnetic resonance
imaging(MRI), positron emission tomography(PET), and other tests may be done.
The prognosis for Epilepsy is if you take the medication you can be seizure free. Surgery can also
eliminate seizures. The Ketogenic diet can reduce seizures.
The Nervous system is a very unique and complex body system, with many diseases. Alzheimer's
disease and Epilepsy is only a couple of the diseases that can happen within the Nervous

The Ideal Treatment Of Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's disease is a progressive mental deterioration that can occur in middle or elderly age. It
destroys memory and other major mental functions (Mayo Clinic staff).
Symptoms are what start Alzheimer's disease. Examples of symptoms are finding the right words to
use, getting lost, repeating questions, changes in personality, depression, and so forth.
When diagnosed, the doctor may ask the patient about their ability to complete regular tasks.
Doctors usually perform tests like problem solving, language skills, and counting to analyze their
memory. They may order medical tests to examine blood and/or spinal fluid. The medical
practitioner could possibly perform a brain scan such as a computed tomography ( CT ) scan or
magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) test. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For mild to severe symptoms the doctors can choose from many treatments, such as galantamine,
rivastigmine, and donepezil. For moderate Alzheimer's disease they ( doctors ) usually treat with
memantine. Memantine can also be used for severe Alzheimer's disease, yet the ideal treatment for
severe Alzheimer's disease is donepezil.
There are also potential treatments that they are still in the testing phase. Some examples are
cognitive training, specific diets, treatments for health issues that may be related to Alzheimer's
disease, such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes, and exercise.
There are many different effects of Alzheimer's disease. Common effects are loss of intellectual and
social skills, they may even forget some or worse everybody in their family or life. Many of these
effects are caused because of memory loss. When the brain cells get worse and die, causing a steady
decline in memory and mental

Genetics, Environmental Factors And Prevention Of...
The Disease
An irreversible, progressive brain disorder is the best way to describe the disease known as
Alzheimer's. This disease slowly destroys memory, thinking skills, and eventually the ability to
carry out the simplest tasks (NIA, 2015). A disease that is currently ranked as the sixth leading cause
of death in the United States, but recent estimates indicate that the disorder may rank third, just
behind heart disease and cancer, as a cause of death for older people. Most people with Alzheimer's,
symptoms first appear in their mid–60s. Estimates vary, but experts suggest that more than five
million Americans may have Alzheimer's (NIA, 2015).
Healthy Brain Vs Diseased
The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human ... Show more content on
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However, there are a few drugs that have been proven to slow down this ruthless disease. One of
those drugs are cholinesterase inhibitors. Cholinesterase inhibitors work by slowing the process that
breaks down a key neurotransmitter (NIA, n.d.). A few brands of cholinesterase inhibitors are;
Donepezil, Galantamine, and Rivastigmine. Another type of drug out there is Memantine.
"Memantine is an NMDA (N–methyl–D–aspartate) receptor antagonist, which works by control the
flow of glutamate, an important neurotransmitter in the brain that controls learning and memory.
Attachment of glutamate to cell surface "docking sites" called NMDA receptors permits calcium to
enter the cell. This process is important for cell signaling, as well as learning and memory. In
Alzheimer's disease, however, excess glutamate can be released from damaged cells, leading to
chronic overexposure to calcium, which can speed up cell damage. Memantine helps prevent this
destructive chain of events by partially blocking the NMDA receptors (NIA, n.d.)" There is only one
known surgery so far for this disease, which is the Brain Pacemaker. The Brain 'Pacemaker' – which
provides deep brain stimulation and has been used in thousands of people with Parkinson's disease,
is seen as a possible means of boosting memory and reversing cognitive

If Memantine Interferes With Alpha Tocopherol
Although this study was well done, it leaves some unanswered questions. The biggest question is if
memantine interferes with alpha tocopherol. While this study discovered that there is a connection
between the two, it did not uncover what that connection was. More research should be conducted to
determine the relationship between alpha tocopherol and memantine. Next, the vitamin E was taken
orally via a liquid filled capsule. According to a study by Dr. Dan Engle published in 2009,
compressed pill form of vitamins can have a poor absorption rate. The average person may not be
aware of this research, and the study could have explained why this type of tablet was chosen. With
that being said, a study could be conducted comparing the different between soft–gel tablets and oil
to determine which form of vitamin E would give the highest absorption rate. Additionally, ninety–
seven percent of the participants were male, which means that only three percent of the participants
were female. Because the focus was a male population, the question of whether vitamin E would
affect females the same way is not supported. Although males and females are similar, they are also
very different, and with that being said, a study that focuses on one sex cannot say that it is true for
both sexes without scientific evidence. Lastly, because the Department of Veterans Affairs
Cooperative Studies organized the study, all the participants were veterans. These veterans could
have been

Symptoms And Treatment Of Alzheimer 's Disease
Although there is no cure for Alzheimer's there are ways to treat this disease. Certain medications
may help lessen the symptoms, such as memory loss and confusion but only for a limited amount of
time. The Food and Drug Administration have approved the following types of medications:
cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine, both of these medications treat the cognitive symptoms of
Alzheimer 's disease. (Office) Unfortunately, as Alzheimer's advances the patient's brain cells
progressively die and connections among the cells are lost. This in turn causes his or her cognitive
symptoms to worsen. As previously stated, current medications cannot stop the damage Alzheimer's
causes to the brain cells but some may help lessen or stabilize symptoms for a limited time. These
medications affect certain chemicals involved in relaying messages among the brain 's nerve cells
causing the symptoms to better for a certain amount of time. At times doctors may even prescribe
high doses of vitamin E to act as another aid to the medications. Primarily, Cholinesterase inhibitors
are prescribed to the patient to treat symptoms having to do with memory, thinking, language,
judgment and other thought processes– the Cognitive symptoms. Cholinesterase inhibitors prevent
the breakdown of acetylcholine. When that happens it supports communication among nerve cells
by keeping the levels of acetylcholine high. This medication is generally well tolerated by those who
take it. However, if side effects do

In the beginning of this year, a research paper was...
In the beginning of this year, a research paper was published in The Journal of the American
Medical Association. This paper discussed a clinical trial of which they used vitamin E and
Memantine as a way to reduce the effects of AD. This trial started in 2007, but before that, there
were trials studying the effects of antioxidants in AD patients. Both trials hypothesized that the use
of antioxidants and another variable could reduce the effects of AD. One trial, studying the effects of
antioxidants on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers, which are commonly found in patients with
AD, was a double blind study, which took place between 2006 and 2008. This study used three
different variables of drugs were given to the patients in a 16–week ... Show more content on
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Also lowering the CSF F2–isoprostane levels in the E/C/ALA group reduced the oxidative stress in
the brain. However, this raised the patient's cognitive decline, which would is the opposite of what
the next trail wanted to do. The next trail thought that the use of antioxidants would reduce the
progression of mild to moderate AD. This trial began in August of 2007 and ended in September of
2012. The participants were given 1 of 4 drugs: alpha tocopherol (vitamin E), memantine, the
combination, or a placebo. Alpha tocopherol, or vitamin E, is a fat–soluble vitamin and antioxidant.
It has been studied in patients with moderately sever AD and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). In
the patients with moderately sever AD, it was found that vitamin E was effective in the dose of 2000
ID/d, however it was not effective in patients with MCI. Memantine, a N–methyl–D–aspartate
(NMDA) antagonist, was used in 2 randomized clinical trials before and both featured AD patients.
Each of these studies however were only 6 months, meaning there was not enough time to study the
long term effects of using this drug. The participants chosen for this study were veterans who were
diagnosed with possible or probable mild to moderately sever AD. These patients had a MMSE
between 12 and 26, where the other trial used patients

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Obsessive–compulsive disorder is a frequent, lifelong, and crippling disorder that is present in
several medical settings. However it is under–recognised and undertreated, and for many years,
obsessive–compulsive neurosis had been seen as a disorder that provided an important outlook on
the workings of the unconscious mind. Today, "obsessive–compulsive disorder is viewed as a good
example of a neuropsychiatric disorder, mediated by pathology in specific neuronal circuits, and
responsive to specific pharmacotherapeutic and psychotherapeutic interventions". In the future we
hope to expect a more precise picture of the origins of the disorder, with the use of data collected
from neuroanatomical, neurochemical, neuropathological, neurogenetic, ... Show more content on
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The purpose of the study was to assess the effect of additional memantine in a double–blind,
random, and placebo–controlled study of the treatment of patients who suffered from OCD. Method
A, with a total of 40 inpatients (32 females (80 %); mean age=31.25 years) suffering from OCD
were randomly assigned to a treatment (administration of additional memantine) or a control group
(which was the placebo). The treatment had lasted for 12 consecutive weeks, and all patients were
treated with selective serotonin inhibitors, or clomipramine. The patients had to complete the Yale–
Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale four times. Some experts' ratings had composed a clinical
global impression (clinical global impressions (CGI), of illness severity and illness improvement;
two to three times). "Liver enzymes SGOT and SGPT were also assessed (twice)". The results, out
of the 40 patients approached, 29 had completed the 12 consecutive weeks of the study and the 11
ended up being dropouts. Six of the patients were in the target group and five secluded in the control
group. The symptoms significantly had decreased across the period of the study, but particularly in
the treatment compared with the control group '(significant time×group interaction)'. Illness severity
(CGI severity)

The Biopsychosocial Model Of Alzheimer's Disease
The biopsychosocial model of the Alzheimer's disease consists of three factors such biological
factor, psychological factor, and social factors. Each of these three factors can all working together
to lead to Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia (memory
loss and other cognitive abilities that can interfere with life) that can create problems in the brain.
Alzheimer's disease is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States and it is one of the most
expensive diseases to treat. It cost the Americans $80–100 billion dollars per year on Alzheimer's.
Psychological aspects such as genetic and physical health can spike Alzheimer's disease to occur.
However, there is health prevention that can lower Alzheimer's disease from occurring such as
watching your cholesterol, blood pressure, and health. Psychological factors(cognition, mood, and
will) and social factors(socioeconomic status, culture, religion, and technology) also affect an
individual with Alzheimer's. The Alzheimer's Disease A biopsychosocial model is a deep
interrelation of all of this three–factor such as biological factors(genetic and physical history),
psychological factors (cognition, will, and emotions), and social factors (socioeconomic status,
culture, religion, and technology). When a combination of all of this three–factor working together,
it will lead to an outcome of an illness, however, each of this factors on its own is very insufficient
to lead to an

Informative Essay On Alzheimer's
Have you ever forgotten something like where you put your keys or to pick up shampoo from the
store? How would you feel if all of sudden you couldn't remember newly learned things? This is
what happens with Alzheimer's patients, they have trouble remembering things they have just
learned. There are several different things that someone who may be developing Alzheimer's should
be aware of. First, those who may be suffering from Alzheimer's or have a loved one who may be
suffering from Alzheimer's should be aware of the symptoms. A few of the main symptoms would
include trouble remembering newly learned information, disorientation, mood and behavior changes
and deepening confusion about events, time and place. Trouble remembering newly learned ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Caregivers of a person with Alzheimer's will be a loved one, spouse, adult child or close companion.
Even early stages of Alzheimer's a person will require 24–hour a day care and will need to be
flexible and understanding in dealing with changes in their loved ones behavior and personality.
Caregivers would need to be aware of the everyday life of someone with Alzheimer's. Some areas
that they would need to know so that they could better assist their loved ones would be with
communication, bathing, dressing, mealtime, and sleeping. As a person progresses more with
Alzheimer's they will more than likely have trouble understanding what is happening and what is
expected of them. This can be frustrating to the person and to the caregiver. Another thing that a
caregiver would need to be aware of is home and personal safety for the person with Alzheimer's.
This would include keeping floors clear of clutter, securing locks on doors and windows and
childproof medication

Negative Effects Of Music With Dementia
Imagine having a stressful day at work and going out to the vehicle and not having any sound. Try to
envision what life would be like not knowing what music was or how it sounded. Music has its way
of connecting with people mentally, physically, and emotionally. Some people may question why
music is so memorable, powerful, and emotional. Many people have songs that remind them of
things such as relationships, break–ups, or sadly a death, and many more things. Music has been
around for many centuries, but what people may not know is that music can help with one's health
(Music on the Brain). Something that many people may not know is that music connects with people
who have dementia and Alzheimer's disease as well. Music therapy leads to a positive effect on
patients because it sparks one's memory, makes one's mood change, and it helps a person's quality of
life.
Many tend to get dementia and Alzheimer's confused, but they are two different diseases. People
with dementia have symptoms that can vary greatly such as memory loss, communication and
language, ability to focus and pay attention, reasoning and judgement, and visual perception. There
are 36 million people estimated to live with dementia, and this number is rapidly increasing"
(Alzheimer's Disease International, 2012). When someone has dementia, it starts off slowly but then
progresses quickly. "Dementia is a chronic or persistent disorder of the mental processes caused by
brain disease or injury and

Alzheimer 's Disease ( Ad )
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex, multifactorial neurodegenerative disease that is currently
being managed by symptomatic treatment. The affected areas include the central nervous system
(CNS) which is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is essential in managing our
thoughts, cognitive abilities, and our ability to interact with the environment. AD patients are known
to experience symptoms such as memory loss in the early stages which develop into speaking
difficulties to eventually hallucinations. The commonly used AD treatments include Donepezil,
rivastigmine, galantamine and memantine. Only the last two will be discussed in this essay and
novel treatments. The current treatments for AD focus on relieving symptoms ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The epsilon4 allele of apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4) which is located in chromosome 19 is linked to
the onset and progression of AD. The synaptic loss is due to a loss of cholinergic neurones which
transmits nerve signals in the brain which are known to be linked to memory formation (figure 2).
Amyloid plaques cause this loss. S.McGREEVEY et al,2013. J. Cerebral Blood Flow &
Metabolism, 2006,1562–1576. ACh and memory ACh helps in memory formation by facilitating
cell to cell signalling of the cholinergic neurones in the frontal cortex of the brain (thoughts and
action). ACh is synthesised by choline transferase enzyme (ChaT) in the cytoplasm of the pre–
synaptic neurone (figure 3). Currently approved medicines such as galantamine and memantine are
used to treat AD (ACh inhibitors) that aims to alleviate symptoms of AD. Galantamine mechanism
of action Galantamine is a tertiary alkaloid selective AChE inhibitor (mild action). AD disease is
associated with down regulation of nicotinic receptors and NMDAR (Lenzken et al,2007), but with
stimulation. As a result of administering galantamine this releases excitatory neurotransmitters ACh
and glutamate which protects against beta–amyloid (1–40 peptide) toxicity in the brain, and cell
death (antiapoptotic). Galantamine has the ability to protect against cell death and its
neuroprotective mechanism by acting as a

The Problem Based Learning # 1 : Alzheimer 's Disease
PBL 1 Assignment Jodi–Ann Crawford PNH 301 Instructor: Hyacinth Jackson October 13, 2015
Problem Based Learning #1: Alzheimer's Disease Student Name: Date: SID: M.E. is a 62–year–old
woman who has a 5–year history of progressive forgetfulness. She is no longer able to care for
herself, has become increasingly depressed and paranoid, and recently started a fire in the kitchen.
After extensive neurologic evaluation, M.E. is diagnosed as having Alzheimer 's disease. Her
husband and children have come to the Alzheimer 's unit at your extended care facility for
information about this disease and to discuss the possibility of placement for M.E. You reassure the
family that you have experience dealing with the questions and concerns of most people in their
situation. 1. How would you explain Alzheimer 's disease to the family? –Alzheimer's is in no way a
normal part of aging. It is when the cells of the brain gradually deteriorates and consequently affects
thinking ability and memory. Their activities of daily living will also be greatly affected. 2. The
husband asks, "How did she get Alzheimer 's? We don 't know anyone else who has it." How would
you respond? –There are two types of Alzheimer's disease: Familial autosomal dominant (FAD)
Alzheimer's disease occurs in less than 5% of all cases of Alzheimer's disease and has a genetic link.
For FAD to occur, the disease needs to be apparent over several generations of one family.

Donepezil Hydrochloride : The Active Ingredient
Donepezil hydrochloride is the active ingredient in the prescription drug Aricept, a common drug
used to treat mild, moderate, and severe Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia. It is a
reversible inhibitor of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is responsible for the breakdown of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Increased levels of acetylcholine are believed to relieve the
effects of Alzheimer's disease.
Donepezil hydrochloride is known chemically by the IUPAC name 2,3–dihydro–5,6–dimethoxy–2–
[[1–(phenylmethyl)–4–piperidinyl]methyl]–1H–inden–1–one hydrochloride (Figure 1). It is a white
powder, and is available commercially as 5, 10, and 23 mg pills. Aricept, the original name–brand
form of the drug, is marketed and sold by the pharmaceutical companies Pfizer and Eisai. However,
the company Sandoz now makes a generic brand form of the drug as well, known as Sandoz's
Donepezil. Another generic form of donepezil created by Ranaxby Labs gained USDA approval in
November of 2010, and a third generic form, made by Wockhardt, is in the process of gaining
approval for sale (RxList).
Figure 1: Chemical structure of donepezil (TRC).
3
Major Alternative Products to Donepezil
Apart from donepezil HCl (or brand name Aricept), there exist several other drugs prescribed to
treat the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Similar FDA approved drugs include galantamine,
memantine, rivastigmine, and a donepezil and memantine mixture branded under the name
Namzaric. Rivastigmine and

Alzheimer 's Research Paper : Alzheimer And Its Symptoms
Meghan Odell English IV– 5 Mrs. Crow 18 November 2015 Alzheimer's Research Paper There are
three separate stages of Alzheimer's, they are all so different and yet so similar. Many people have a
false recollection of Alzheimer's disease and its symptoms. Many believe that people only get
Alzheimer's as a result of aging. Alzheimer's disease is not a disease that happens because the
human body gets worn down, but because of a change occurring in the human brain. Alzheimer's is
a serious disease that needs to to be acknowledged not just by the the elderly, but by everyone.
Alzheimer's has become the most common type of dementia (What is Alzheimer's). Alzheimer's is
accountable for up to eighty percent of dementia cases (What is ... Show more content on
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Many people do not know how common this disease is in today's society. "Every sixty–seven
seconds someone in the United States develops this disease" (Stages of Alzheimer's). According to
the statistics provided by the Alzheimer's Association, " Alzheimer's disease is the sixth leading
cause of death in the United States" (Stages of Alzheimer's). Alzheimer's is separated into three
distinct categories such as " mild Alzheimer's disease, moderate Alzheimer's disease, and severe
Alzheimer's disease" (Stages of Alzheimer's). The first stage of Alzheimer's is considered to be mild.
According to the Alzheimer's Association "the most common symptom of early Alzheimer's is
difficulty remembering newly learned information, because Alzheimer's changes typically begin in
that part of the brain that affects learning" (What is Alzheimer's). There are other symptoms that are
associated with mild Alzheimer's such as "memory loss, hard time completing everyday tasks,
confusion about dates and times, problem speaking and/ or writing..." (10 Early Signs and
Symptoms). One might even be less involved at home or at work than usual, and have a change in
behavior. Another symptom that people with mild Alzheimer's may get as a result of the disease
progressing is the lack of memorization of names and increasing grammar problems. At first they
will be little

Memantine Research Paper
Medicines available for Alzheimer's Disease (AD) do not reverse or stop its progression but they
temporarily lesson the symptoms. Memantine is one of the drugs used to treat AD patients. The U.S
Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) has approved two types of mechanisms for treating AD; Cholinesterase
(an enzyme) inhibitors (e.g. donepezil, galantamine and rivastigmine): prevents break down of
acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter/chemical messengers in body) and Blocking of NMDA (N–
methyl–D–aspartate) receptors (e.g. memantine) (NMDA Receptors: Protein structures which are
present on nerve cell surface).
How Memantine works: In brain, neurons communicate through synapses (junctions between two
neurons) where information from one cell to another is

Cognitive Impairment Of Alzheimer 's Disease
Q3: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a decline in cognitive function that does not meet the
standards of dementia but is worse than what is expected for the patient's age and educational
background (Petersen et al., 1999). While a patient with MCI is at increased (10–20%) risk of
developing Alzheimer's disease (AD) compared to the normal population, it is not necessary to
classify patients as having MCI until they develop any further preclinical AD symptoms (Petersen et
al., 1999). The diagnostic criteria for MCI includes: (1) impaired in memory that is greater than
expected for age and general cognition is not effected (2) capable of performing daily activities and
(3) not demented (Albert et al., 2011; Petersen et al., 1999). ... Show more content on
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When AD is suspected, patients will undergo MRI, PET Scans, and lumbar punctures to look for
brain atrophy, beta–amyloid plaques, or increased phosphorylated tau in cerebral spinal fluid
(Hyman et al., 2012). The two main biomarkers of AD are beta–amyloid (Aβ) and tau and are highly
debated in regards to their function in AD pathophysiology. The production of beta–amyloid plaques
may be due to improper functioning of the proteasome preventing the breakdown of Aβ. Support for
this theory comes from research indicating that the 20S proteasome is responsible for Aβ
degradation and that alterations to the kinetics of the proteasome increased Aβ levels (Zhao & Yang,
2010). These accumulated levels of Aβ plaques leads to lower levels of soluble Aβ, which is needed
for memory formation. This may occur through activation of nicotinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors
and AChE levels are drastically reduced in AD patients. (Garcia–Osta & Alberini, 2009). The
microtubule stabilizing protein tau may become hyper–phosphorylated in AD due to the presence of
high levels of Aβ. Hoshi et al (1996) showed that Aβ exposure to rat hippocampal neurons in vitro
produced increased levels of the tau kinase GSK–3 (glycogen synthase kinase 3) which in turn
hyper–phosphorylated tau leading to cellular death. (Hoshi et al., 1996) The neurotoxicity of tau
may not be produced solely because of GSK–3, but may be due to

The Link Between Autistic Spectrum Disorder
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a progressive brain disease that results in cognitive functioning and
memory loss. It is thought that reduced levels of the fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP)
contributes to increased amyloid precursor protein (APP) levels, therefore contributing to the
symptoms of AD. However, the link between Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) and AD is still a
relatively new area of research, so there are few certainties and still many unknowns. Studies were
carried out measuring the percentage of FMRP in both the cortex and cerebellum of children with
AD. This showed that there were consistently lower FMRP levels in the brain of AD sufferers,
which favours the link between low FMRP abundance and AD. Another study showed that the
higher the secretion levels of APP, the more severe the symptoms of ASD. This allows a link to be
made between high APP levels and enhanced symptoms in both AD and ASD sufferers.
Additionally, drugs that target both AD and ASD are being developed such as an AD targeted drug
called Memantine which has been found to be effective at alleviating symptoms of ASD.
Introduction:
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder involving senile plaques distributed
throughout the cerebral cortex and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. These plaques are
predominantly composed of beta–amyloid (Aβ), which is a 39 to 42 amino acid peptide and is
cleaved from the (APP). With 1 in every 14 people over the age of

Effects Of Alzheimer 's Disease : Description Of The Disease
Effects of Alzheimer's disease Description of the Disease Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative
disorder which attacks brain cells and neurons. This disease results in loss of memory, lower
thinking capacity, loss of coordination and poor language skills. Alzheimer disease is majorly
caused by brain cell death where neurons producing acetylcholine or neurotransmitters breaks
connections with other nerve cell resulting to inflammation in the brain system connection (Munoz
& Feldman, 2012). When nerve cells in the hippocampus are destroyed by Alzheimer's disease a
person experiences the loss of short–term memory, while the destruction of neurons in the cerebral
cortex results to decline in person's judgment and language skills. Causes ... Show more content on
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In addition to that, patients with Alzheimer's disease are reported to having loss of memory because
of disconnection in the process involving signal transduction. The brain tissue shrinks and brain
cells also die as a result of inflammation. Most of the patients with Alzheimer's disease are people of
age 65 years and above. It is therefore, believed that age is an environmental factor that increases
the risk of Alzheimer's development. Even though it is not proven scientifically, the statisticians
have reported half of the people over the age of 80 having Alzheimer's disease (Causes and Risk
Factors for Alzheimer's Disease., n.d.). Other risk factors that may lead to the disease development
are; smoking, Hypertension, accumulation of cholesterol in the body, poorly controlled diabetes,
lack of social engagement, lack of exercise and mild cognitive impairment. The 7 Stages of
Alzheimer's Disease Per Dr. Barry Reisberg of New York University, there are 7 progression stages
of Alzheimer's disease. During stage 1, the are no observable signs of Alzheimer's disease or
dementia. In stage 2, patients seem to have normal age related memory loss like losing things
around the house. They can still pass memory and cognitive testing and their memory loss is
unlikely to be noticed by family or doctor. At stage 3, family members start to notice memory

Alzheimer's Disease Analysis
Have you ever had that one thing you always seem to forget? Well try having an incurable disease
that allows you to slowly forget about everything! This disease is called Alzheimer's disease
(AD), well known as Alzheimer's, which is one of the most common forms of dementia. Throughout
this syndrome you experience symptoms of confusion, mood swings, aggression, irritability, trouble
with language, and long–term memory loss (Youth for Service 2014).
Alzheimer's illness is an ongoing form of mental illness that impedes with behavior, memory and
reasoning, which can be caused by having strokes, head injuries and etc. Alzheimer's is a life
threatening disease that not only can cause brain damage and paranoia but nevertheless there are
medicines ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These treatments are each used to help postpone different levels of this disease. To treat mild to
moderate symptoms from spreading doctors would proscribe donepezil (Aricept®), rivastigmine
(Exelon®), or galantamine (Razadyne®), because they help lessen symptoms for a limited time by
affecting certain chemicals involved in carrying messages among the brain's nerve cells (National
Institute on Aging). Doctors sometimes prescribe mulitiple types of medications together to
decrease. Some doctors also prescribe high doses of vitamin E for cognitive changes of Alzheimer's
disease. To treat moderate to severe symptoms from advancing doctors would usually proscribe
memantine (Namenda®). This drug decreases abnormal activity in the brain. Memantine may
improve the ability to think and remember or may slow the loss of these abilities in people who have
AD.
However, memantine will not cure AD or prevent the loss of these abilities at some time in the
future.
Throughout the years science has strained and searched for many ways to cure this horrific disease.
However overtime they have yet to find a cure. Even though scientists have made progress

Current Drug Treatments And Its Effects
Current drug treatments are limited to those which only offer symptomatic relief that may not be
seen in all patients rather than treatments which target and slow disease progression (Anand, Gill &
Mahdi 2014; Nelson & Tabet 2015). Only two types of drugs have been approved for the
symptomatic treatment of AD, acetylcholine esterase inhibitors (AChEIs) and ¬N–methyl–D–
asparate (NMDA) receptor antagonists (Anand, Gill & Mahdi 2014; Nelson & Tabet 2015). There
are three approved AChEIs, Donepezil (Aricept), Rivastigmine (Exelon) and Galantamine
(Razadyne), along with a fourth cholinesterase inhibitor Tacrine which is no longer readily used due
to hepatotoxicity (Watkins et al. 1994) and one NMDA, Memantine (Namenda) (Nelson & Tabet
2015). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, these treatments have so far only proved effective throughout the initial stages of the
disease; as once the disease has progressed further the drugs no longer offer adequate symptomatic
relief (Rogers & Friedhoff 1996; Small et al. 2005; Wilkinson & Murray 2001).
More recently the first NMDA drug uncompetitive receptor antagonist, memantine was approved for
clinical use in management and treatment of moderate–to–severe AD (Anand, Gill & Mahdi 2014).
It is currently the only approved drug for the treatment of moderate–to–severe AD; and a review
conducted by (Revett et al. 2013) concluded that meantime had a significant effect on slowing
cognitive decline and on the ability of patient to complete every day activities. It seemed to have no
effect on patients with mild AD (Schneider et al. 2014) and displayed inconsistent results when used
in conjunction with existing AChEI treatments (Nelson & Tabet 2015). Memantine aims to prevent
the occurrence of increased pathological influx of Ca2+ ions, during temporal and spatial
convergent activation of glutamatergic synapses throughout learning and memory process (Danysz
& Parsons 2012). As previously stated glutamatergic neurons are affected towards the later stages of
AD, and results in an accumulation of glutamate and increase NMDA receptor activity resulting in
excitotoxicity; inadvertently causing the death of central neurons (Revett et al. 2013).
Anand, R, Gill, KD & Mahdi, AA

The 's Drug Market And The Treatment Of Alzheimer 's...
Razadyne or Galantamine is an alkaloid drug used mainly in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease
and dementia. It works through the mechanism of reverse competitive inhibition of the enzyme
called acetylcholinesterase, which prevents the breakdown of the correspondent substrate
acetylcholine, an essential chemical for the processes of thinking and reasoning. The Alzheimer's
drug market represents a 5.5–billion–dollar industry according to a pharma matters report published
in 2009 by Thompson Reuters. However, Galantamine only owns a small percentage of this market,
which requires an improvement in the current manufacturing process in order to compete with the
other pharmaceutical companies who own the greater portions of the Alzheimer's ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Table of Contents Market Development Plan Chemical Description and Commercial
Use...............................................................1 Alzheimer's
Market............................................................................................2 Alzheimer's
Competitors.....................................................................................3 Galantamine
Competitors.....................................................................................4 Cost Estimation for the
Production of Galantamine......................................................5 Reaction Chemistry and Process
Improvement Reaction Scheme for the Production of Galantamine.....................................................7
Reaction Temperatures and Solvents.........................................................................8 List of Potential
By–products.................................................................................9 Block Flow Diagram for the
Production of Galantamine...............................................10 Technical
Challenges........................................................................................11 Recommendations and
Potential Profit Increase.........................................................12
Conclusion.....................................................................................................13 Literature
Cited...............................................................................................14 Appendix:
Calculations......................................................................................16 List of Figures Figure 1. Three
Dimensional Structure of Galantamine..................................................1 Figure 2. Sales Figures
(2000 to 2011) and Consensus Forecast Sales.................................3 Figure 3. Reaction Scheme for
the Overall Production of Galantamine...............................7 Figure 4: Block Flow Diagram for the
Production Galantamine from 3,4–
Dimethoxybenzaldehyde....................................................................................10 List of Tables Table
1. Market Demand of Possible Galantamine Applications........................................3 Table 2. Average
Consumer Cost

Lateset Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's Noelle Streiff AM Group Did you know your could share a penny between two people?
No, neither did I. My great grandmother had Alzheimer's and she gave me and my brother one
penny to share between me and my brother for Christmas. She was so excited she got us all
something for Christmas but she did not realize exactly what it was. Alzheimer's disease affects one
in nine people over the age of 65. Over 16 million Americans will have this disease before the year
2050. Alzheimer's is a progressive disease that eventually destroys memory and other other very
important functions. First it starts with mild confusion and the patient has a hard time remembering.
Soon after that they may get much worse ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Does your medication help you? The first medication she took did not help her but the memantine
worked wonders for her. It helped her do daily living activities she couldn't do while being on
donezepil. 6. What did you have to go through to treat it? She had to go through many different tests
and doctors to rule out the different diseases it could be and she had to take medication and exercise
since there is no cure. 7. Do you have to take a lot of medication to treat this disease? No, she
simply only took one medication for this particular disease. She did have to take other medications
to help her exercise though. She took painkillers to help her not be in pain while exercising. 8. What
steps does the doctor take if you tell him you have been experiencing some signs that the medicine
is not working? The doctor told her to stay on the medications just a few more days or weeks just to
try it and then they slowly started to put her on memantine instead of donezepil. 9. Do you know
any of the signs that you are experiencing episodes of this illness? She knew she was starting to
have troubles getting dressed by herself and starting to forget where she put

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