Ionic Trends

Ionic Trends
The periodic trend for the atomic radius can be described as half the distance of the nuclei between
the two atoms, and most of the elements are formed covalent molecules. The radius is mostly
measured in picometers and the patterns can be observed through the periodic table and generally
decreases from left to right. This occurs because all the electrons are added in the same shell but
protons are added to the nucleus at the same time, which ends up making it more positive. What
ends up happening is that the proton numbers added are greater than the electrons added, which
creates a strong nuclear attraction, which greatly attracts the electrons as well. The electrons in the
outside or formally called valence electrons are then pressed closer to the nucleus of the atom, so the
atomic radius thus decreases.
The periodic trend for ionizations energy can be defined as the energy used to remove electrons
from a neutral atom (gaseous or ion) and is deemed the opposite of electronegativity. Low ionization
energy would be energy that is more likely to become a cation. The trend decreases from right to
left, as the right side's valence shells would almost be fully occupied and thus meaning higher
ionization energy. Now the left ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Additionally, the electronegativity values for all elements is sometimes seen on some periodic
tables. Electronegativity increases from left to right because the elements will have a less filled
valence shell, which means less energy is used to lose an electron rather than trying to gain one.
While if the valence shell is more full, it would be the opposite, so it would be easier to gain
electrons than lose some. From top to bottom, the electronegativity would decrease because down
the group, there is more distance between the valence electrons and
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Why Does Atomic Size Matter
Atomic Size: As you go across periods, atomic mass and number increases because more protons are
added to the nucleus and electrons are added to the outer shell meaning the atoms got heavier. Also
when you go down groups the mass and number increases because like before there are more
protons and electrons added (extra "shells").
Atomic Radius: The distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost electron 'shell'. Atomic
size gradually decreases from left to right across a period of elements. More electrons and protons
added. They pull the electrons closer and therefore size decreases. Atomic radius increases as more
electron sublevels added when you go down a group. Electron shielding doesn't let outer electrons to
be attracted to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The stronger the bond, the more energy required to break that bond. Melting points vary and do not
generally form a distinguishable trend across or down the periodic table. Metals generally have high
melting points because of the attraction between the metal ions and the electrons which means that
high energy levels are needed to break these bonds. Most non–metals possess low melting points. As
you go down group 7 in the periodic table, the forces increase. This means the melting points
increase as the bonds between molecules get stronger and this is why they go from gas to
liquid/solid. As you go across a period, the melting point of the alkali metals is higher than the non–
metals except carbon and silicon (Group 4 because they exist as network lattice structures meaning
every atom is covalently bonded to another atom) but group 4 has the highest melting point due to
the strength of covalent bonding. The atoms in the element are held together by the attraction of the
nuclei to the delocalised electrons, and as the atom gets bigger the electrons get further away from
the nucleus and the attraction decreases allowing bonds to be broken easier. Lead has a high melting
point even though it's in period 6 because of its 12 coordination structure. Tin however has a
distorted structure and so the bonds are not as strong as

How Does Ionic Boding Affect Melting And Boiling Point
Report on structure and bonding and how it effects the melting and boiling point across period 3
Covalent bonding is a bond where two or more atoms share electrons. The atom is unstable on its
own and is not willing to give and electron away, therefore they share, which makes them stable.
This can also be described are the molecules being held together by a strong covalent bond. An
example of this would–be Hydrogen, on its own it is unstable, so it shares its only electron with
another, giving it a strong covalent bond. Hydrogen only has one electron, but requires two for its
outer shell, unable to give one away, they share. H + H = H2
Ionic boding is when an atom gives another electron to another to form an ionic bond. One atom
will donate an electron to another to fill its outer shell, that is held together by Electrostatic
attraction. These bonds involve Cations, which are positive Ions that are mostly metals and Anions
which are negative Ions that are mostly non–metals. An example of this would–be Sodium and
Chlorine. Sodium has one electron on its outer shell, Chlorine has seven electrons on its outer shell.
Chlorine needs eight electrons on its outer shell to make it stable. Sodium has a spare electron, so
will donate it to Chlorine. Na + Cl = NaCl ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Metals have a giant metallic lattice, this is described as electrons being close packed together,
known as a sea of positive delocalised electrons. A strong delocalised electron means that they are a
good conductor of electricity and can pass kinetic energy to each other. The electrons have a strong
electrostatic attraction, meaning they have a high melting point and the more electrons the higher the
melting point

Atom And The Atoms Of Atoms
An atom is contained of a nucleus holding positively charged protons and neutrally charged
neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus of an atom are negatively charged electrons. In a neutral atom,
the number of electrons and protons are the same. However, the solidity of an atom, is the tendency
for the atom to gain or lose electrons, is directly proportional to the number of electrons located on
the valence of the atom, the outermost part of the shell. The stability of the electrons determines the
physical properties of a particular compound and can be used to determine if the bone is either an
ionic or covalent bond.
Introduction
The stability of an atom is determined by the number of electrons located on the valence (or outer
shell) of the atom. Electrons are located looping the nucleus in shells. The number and size of each
shell are determined by the number of electrons in an atom. The smaller shells are filled up first,
followed by the next shell. The number of electrons allowed in each shell are as followed: two
electrons in the first shell, eight electrons in the second shell, and 18 electrons in the third shell.
Some elements are more reactive than others varying on the number of electrons positioned on the
valence shell of the atoms involved. Atoms will attempt to create a full valence shell by either losing
excess electrons or by gaining the necessary electrons required to fill the atoms valence shell. This is
how ions are created.
An ion is an atom

Ionic and Covalent Bonding Essay
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Ionic and covalent bonding is involved when the atoms of an element chemically combine to make
their outer shells full and to make the atoms stable.
The first type of bonding you can get is ionic bonding. Electrons are transferred from one atom to
another to try and create full outer shells, this gain and loss of electrons on the atoms results in
positive and negative ions. In these compounds you get electrostatic force, this is the force/attraction
that occurs between the positive and negative ions that hold the compound together. This type of
bonding takes place between metals and non–metals. The metals lose electrons and form cations,
whereas the non–metals gain ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the size of the negative ion and the charge on the positive ion both increase and the size of the
positive ions decrease, the polarisation effect increases. This polar ionic bonding gives many of the
atoms covalent characters. Sometimes one of the atoms become so highly polarised that they share
the electrons and therefore can create covalent bonds.
Covalent bonding takes place where two atoms have a single, unpaired electron in an atomic orbital;
these orbitals will therefore overlap so that the two atoms are sharing a pair of electrons. The
attraction that holds the atoms together is the force between the electron and the nuclei in each of the
atoms. Before the atoms are bonded, the single, non–bonded pairs of electrons are called lone pairs
of electrons. When the atoms combine by means of covalent bonding they form molecules.
Simple covalent compounds consist of many small molecules. The covalent bonds within the
molecules are strong but the bondings between them to form the compounds are relatively weak, the
force that occurs between them is called the intermolecular force. It takes very little energy to break
these forces; therefore simple covalent compounds have very low melting points and generally
appear as gases.
You can also get multiple bonds; this is where atoms can share more than 2

Why Are Metallic And Covalent Bonding?
Metallic and Covalent Bonding:
All matter is composed of building blocks in the form of atoms. Atoms consist of three subatomic
particles, protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons are positively charged, neutrons have no charge
and together they form the nucleus in the centre of the atom. Electrons are negatively charged and
form shells in which they orbit the nucleus. Figure 1
Each shell has a maximum number of electrons it can contain, with the first shell containing up to 2,
the second shell containing up to 8 and the third shell containing up to 18. However, each electron
shell follows the octet rule and generally only contains a maximum of 8 electrons. The electrons that
are located in an atom's outermost shell are called valence electrons. Atoms are arranged on the
periodic table with the horizontal rows, called periods corresponding to the number of electron
shells in an atom and the vertical columns, called groups corresponding to the number of valence
electrons in an atom. The reactivity of an atom and its tendency to interact and form bonds with
other atoms is determined by the number and distribution of the electrons. This arrangement allows
these properties to be predicted easily.
Atoms aim to have a complete valence shell of eight electrons and achieve this through bonding.
Bonding involves either the gaining, losing or sharing of valence electrons, depending on which
electron transfer requires the least energy to complete and differs for metals, non–metals

Describe The Number Of Protons And Nuetrons
The copper atom is constructed from three kinds of particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The
protons and neutrons are located in a very small spherical volume at the exact center of the atom
called the nucleus. Protons have a +1 charge, and nuetrons have no charge, so the nucleus has an
overall positive charge. The electrons, which have a –1 charge, are located in a relatively large
spherical volume around and centered on the nucleus.
The nucleus of all copper atoms contains exactly 29 protons. However, atoms with two different
numbers of neutrons, called isotopes, are to be constructed. One isotope contains 34 neutrons
(copper–63) and the other isotope contains 36 neutrons (copper–65). For every 100 atoms made,
there are 69 copper–63 atoms and 31 copper–65 atoms. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These electrons, as is the case with the electrons of all atoms, are arranged in a series of shells and
subshells. Copper atoms may be described by the symbolic notation, 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9,
where each leading number denotes the shell, the lower–case letter denotes the subshell, and the
superscript specifies the number of electrons in the subshell. Within the s–, p–, and d–subshells,
there are 1, 3, and 5 orbitals respectively. Each orbital may contain a maximum of 2 electrons. Thus,
all orbitals in all the subshells occupied by electrons in the copper atom are full except for one
orbital in the d–subshell in the third shell that has just one electron in it. Note that the highest shell
containing electrons in the copper atom is the fourth

What Is Covalent Bonding?
Covalent bonds define the bonds in compounds that result from the sharing of one or more pairs of
electrons (The Covalent Bond). The atoms are unstable because their outer rings of electrons aren't
filled up. By sharing electrons with other atoms, these atoms can fill up their outer rings and become
stable (Carr). Having a full outer shell of electrons is called an octet. Covalent bonds are durable and
are tough to make unstable again (Carr). Molecules that attach with covalent bonds aren't very
attracted to each other so they move freely around each other (Carr). That means that most
molecules that form covalent bonds make either liquids or gases, like water and carbon dioxide
(Carr). Atoms connected by a double bond cannot rotate freely ... Show more content on
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Carr, K. (n.d.). What is Covalent bonding? – Chemistry – Quatr.us. Retrieved from
http://quatr.us/chemistry/atoms/covalent.htm
2. The Covalent Bond. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch8/valenceframe.html
3. CK–12. "Metallic Bonding ( Read ) | Chemistry | CK–12 Foundation." Free Online Textbooks,
Flashcards, Practice, Real World Examples, Simulations | CK–12 Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Feb.
2016. http://www.ck12.org/chemistry/Metallic–Bonding/lesson/Metallic–Bonding–Chemistry–
Intermediate/
4. Library and Archive Catalogue. "Metallic Bonds." ChemTeacher. N.p., 2 Nov. 2010. Web. 3 Feb.
2016. http://chemteacher.chemeddl.org/services/chemteacher/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=36
5. NDT Resource Center. "Atomic Bonding Metallic Bonds." N.p., Web. 3 Feb. 2016.
https://www.nde–ed.org/EducationResources/ CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/metallic.htm
6. W. H. Freeman and Company. "Covalent Bonds – Molecular Cell Biology – NCBI Bookshelf."
National Center for Biotechnology Information. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Feb. 2016.

Electron Affinity And Ionization Energy
Recently in class we have discovered the meaning of electron affinity and ionization energy. We
know that ionization energy is the energy required to be absorbed when an ionic bond removes an
electron from an atom. We also know that electron affinity is how easily an atom will accept an
electron into its shells when trying to make itself neutral. This means that both of these terms play a
big role when an atom loses or gains an electron.
The ionization energy is the energy to remove an electron from an atom. A trend for ionization
energy is that it generally increases left to right across a row on the periodic table except for the
noble gases which have closed shells. For example, lithium requires only 520 kJ/mol to ionize it
while helium, the noble gas right next to it in the periodic table, requires 2372 kJ/mol. The
ionization energy can be thought of as opposite to the electronegativity of an element in the way that
a low ionization energy gives away that an element easily loses electrons to a reaction, while a high
electronegativity shows that an element strongly wants to have electrons in a reaction.
The electron affinity is an amount of energy that changes when ... Show more content on
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Electron affinity, on the other hand, describes the energy that is released when an electron binds to
an atom. This tells us that since energy is released, the electron affinities will be negative. Another
example of the differences between electron affinity and ionization energy is that ionization energy
is related with making cations from neutral atoms due to the fact that it measures the amount of
energy needed to remove an electron. In contrast, electron affinity is related with making anions due
to the fact that it is the amount of energy that changes when a negative ion is formed from an
electron being added. These are two big example of how electron affinity and ionization energy are

How Lewis Structures Are Constructed
Lewis Structure shows how atoms in a covalent bond share electrons. Dots are used to show lone
pairs of electrons, and lines symbolize bonds. This essay will explain how Lewis Structures are
constructed.
The first step is counting how many valence electrons there are. Determine the number of electrons
that are in the outer shells of each atom. For example, H2O has 6 valence electrons in oxygen and 1
in hydrogen. Therefore, there are 8 total since there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Non–valence electrons are not expressed.
Next, write the symbols for each atom and connect them with single bonds. The order of the atoms
in the formula usually shows connectivity. HCN is written H–C–N in its Lewis Structure. If there
are only two types of atoms, the central atom is usually written first and has lower electronegativity.
After writing symbols and connecting elements with single bonds, complete the octets of
surrounding atoms with lone pairs. The octet rule states most atoms bond so that every atom has
eight electrons in its outer shell to gain stability of the Noble gases. CF4, for example, has all single
bonds and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nitric oxide is an example of this with eleven electrons in its outer shells, and nitrogen ends up with
only 6 valence electrons. Another molecule that violates the rule is one that does not need eight
valence electrons. For example, in H2O, the hydrogen atoms only need two electrons around them
instead of eight. One other example of a violation is when molecules have extra electrons. SF4 is an
example as sulfur has a lone pair and four covalent bonds, which gives it 10 valence electrons. This
is only possible with atoms that are in the third row of the periodic table or lower with unfilled d–
orbitals. Therefore, exceptions can only occur in molecules that have odd numbers of electrons or
with atoms that have only the first energy level or empty

Describe The Relationship Between The Ionic Radius And Its...
The atomic radius will increase as you down a group, this is also shown on the table. The reason in
which it might go down is because there are more filled energy levels that are between the nucleus
and the outer electron. This is also because more electrons are being added to the atoms and they are
all at a similar distance to one another.
You can clearly see that as you move across a period the atomic radius will decrease and this is
because the atom is clearly smaller. The outer electrons are shown to be closer to the nucleus and are
strongly attracted to the centre this means that it will become more difficult to remove the outermost
electron.
This is the distance away from the central atom. Ionic radius will be seen increasing when going
down the table and this will decrease across the periodic table. ... Show more content on
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When an electron is added to form an atom, this will form an anion, the added electron will repel to
the other electrons and this will then result in an increase in the size of the atom that is presented.
The trend of the ionic radius is shown by the size of the ionic radius shields the outermost electrons
by the inner–shell electrons and this shows that the outer shell electrons won't fell a positive charge
of

Outline On Elements, Atoms, And Compounds
Michael Stephan 9/11/16 Period 04 Chapter Two Outline Elements, Atoms, and Compounds. 2.1
Organisms are composed of elements, in combinations called compounds. Everything is made of
matter. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter is composed of elements.
Element is defined as a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical
means. 92 elements occur in nature. Chemists made some synthetic elements. A compound is
defined as a substance containing two or more elements in a fixed ratio. For example, when
hydrogen and oxygen combine, they form H2O, water. Compounds in organisms usually have three
to four elements. 25 elements are needed for life. 4 of those elements make up 96% of most living
organisms. The rest are known as trace elements. Trace ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Radioactive isotopes are helpful in some ways though, like dating fossils, biological research, and
medicine. 2.4 Radioactive isotopes can help or harm us. Basic Research With the help of radioactive
tracers like carbon, biologists, scientists, and researchers tracked molecules as they went through
chemical changes. Medical Diagnosis and Treatment Radioactive isotopes are used in many
treatments on humans, especially PET (positron–emission tomography) scanners. This can also be
used in a technique to catch Alzheimer's disease in the brain. When the disease advances, the brain
gets an increase of a protein called beta–amyloid. A protein called PID that attaches itself to the
beta–amyloid that can be detected on a PET scan because it has a radioactive isotope. As said, PET
scanners detect any radioactive tracer or radioactive isotope. Dangers Too much exposure to the
radioactive isotopes can harm living organisms. Essential molecules like DNA could be damaged
because the radiation breaks chemical bonds. An example of this is the explosion of a nuclear
reactor in Chernobyl, Ukraine in

Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following statements about heat is false? A) If heat flows into a system, the extra
energy of the system appears in the form of internal energy. B) A hot object possesses more heat
than a cold object. C) If the system and surroundings are in thermal equilibrium, there is no heat
flow between them. D) A process in which heat flows out of a system is said to be exothermic. E)
Heat is a form of energy flow. B is false. If you compare a cup of water at 25oC and a bath tub of
water at 20oC, the cup of water may be warmer, but there are many fewer atoms than the bathtub of
water, so there can actually be more heat in a colder object, but it is spread out throughout many
more atoms so the temperature can be lower. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
X rays have the shortest wave length and frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength so it
has the highest frequency, therefore x–rays will be first in the list. Ultraviolet has the next highest
being of shorter wavelength than visible light. Infrared is of longer wavelength than visible light and
microwaves are some of the longest wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. 9. What is the
frequency of a photon having an energy of 8.56 x 10–16 J? (c = 3.00 x 108 m/s, h= 6.63 x 10–34 J s)
A) 3.88 x 1026 Hz B) 2.32 x 10–10 Hz C) 1.29 x 1018 Hz D) 2.58 x 10–27 Hz E) 2.57 x 10–7 Hz
The answer is B. Energy = planks constant * wavenumber and wave number = speed of light
divided by frequency so energy = planks * speed of light / frequency or E = h*(c/v) and we
rearrange to solve for v so V = h * c / E = (6.63*10–34) * (3*108) / 8.56 * 10–16 = 2.32 x 10–10 s–
1 also known as Hz 10. The number of orbitals having a given value of l is equal to A) 2n + 1 B) 2l
+ 1 C) n + ml D) 2ml + 1 E) l + ml B is the correct answer. For an s orbital, l = 0 and there is 1 s sub
orbital. For p orbitals l = 1 and

Why I Am A Father
Bang!" I quickly sprang from my bed and bolted to the bottom of our staircase where my mom laid
after collapsing. Worried and confused I rushed to wake–up my dad who eventually guided her up
the stairs and found out what happened. My mom had fainted at the top of our staircase after a
bradycardic episode. She was later taken to the hospital to have a loop recorder implanted to
monitor her heart. Eventually, it was identified that she needed a pacemaker at the age of 47.
From as early as I can remember, I have always had a passion for learning and education. Having a
father who was once high school chemistry teacher and a mother who was a nurse made for a fertile
upbringing in the sciences. Our dinner discussions ranged from hydrogen bonding and valence
electron shell repulsion theory to the changing of colostomy bags and other patient bodily functions,
the latter of which I sometimes grimaced at when pudding was planned later for dessert. Looking
back, I was very blessed to have a family that instilled many immensely important qualities into me
as a child.
Although medicine has always been close to me wanting to become a physician was not something I
simply decided overnight. After tagging along with my mom to see her cardiologist a couple of
times I slowly began to put together my love of science with a profession in which I could help
people like my mother. This eventually led to me actively pursuing medicine as a career. Before I
started shadowing Dr. Siddiqui I thought

Electron Affinity Essay
Electron Affinity, by textbook definition it's the energy absorbed or released when an electron is
added to a neutral atom. (Ryerson, 2011, 35) Electron affinity is used in many cases First electron
affinity in bromine–35, has –324 kJ mol–1, or –5.39. These values show us, that Bromine released
energy, and became stable. Bromine would have had an exothermic reaction when the electron was
added to the valence shell. This is because, when non–metals gain electrons, the delta energy is
negative because they release energy to form an anion (exothermic process); thus, the electron
affinity will be negative (Harwood, 2016). There are 28 shielding electrons in Bromine which mean
that there more electron–electron repulsion in Bromine than attraction within the nucleus. Moreover,
Bromine only needs one more electron to become stable in its valence shell, since it is in the non–
metal group, it already has 7 electrons in its valence shell, and so that one electron would stabilize
this element. Overall first electron affinity in Bromine would benefit the element in which it would
stabilize and also allow energy to be released. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lithium is a metal, so it would've had an endothermic reaction, and gained energy to perform
electron affinity. This would be because, in a metal element, when an electron is added to the
valence shell it would make an endothermic reaction so energy is needed to sustain that electron.
(Harwood, 2016) Furthermore, there are only 2 shielding electrons in Lithium, this would mean
Lithium would have a very high attraction between its nucleus and electron, which highlights the
fact that it would need more energy to keep that nucleus from attracting the new electron. (Jones,
2014) Nevertheless, Lithium is an element which

Stratum 14: A Site Analysis
This site began its occupation during the Developed Periphrastic Period due to the pottery found in
strata 25, 24, 23, and 22. The site was continually used until the Early Pleonastic which is found in
strata 18, 17, and 16. The site was abandoned sometime between 1500 BC–800 BC because in
stratum 16 there is Early Pleonastic pottery then in stratum 14 there is Late Chiastic pottery. Stratum
14 has Late Chiastic pottery, indicating the site has a population again. However, the stratum is
clearly a hole that cuts through strata 15, 16, 17, and 18. In the stratum, burnt animal bones, seeds,
broken pottery, and broken groundstones are found, possibly indicating nomadic people travelling
through. The C–14 dates on the seeds are 720 ± 30 BC and ... Show more content on
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Beginning in stratum 10 the emergence of rulers begin to appear with the coin of King Turpis I who
ruled from 279–263 BC. Following King Turpis I, was King Turpis II and his wife, Queen Pulchra.
Stone statues of these rulers were found in stratum 9, deliberately smashed, most likely following
the initial ban on dogs. The signs of burning and smashed stones, indicate some levels of violence
that might have continued into stratum 8. Stratum 8 is thought to have been deposited quickly with
pottery from the Final Periphrastic (1600–1500 BC), Late Pleonastic (1300–1000 BC), Early Litotic
(600–450 BC), Late Litotic (450–250 BC), and Early Frenetic (250 BC–200 AD). The mix of
pottery could indicate that people were forced to leave behind heirlooms from previous generations.
However, stratum 7 has Early Frenetic pottery as well, so if the site was abandoned due to political
strife, it was only for a short while. Two other rulers are indicated in stratum 7: King Snarkon III
(115–138 AD) and Queen Acerba (75–89 AD). Stratum 6 has both Early and Middle Frenetic
pottery along with nut shells. The C–14 dates on one of the shells is 530 ± 30

Physics Of Semiconductors Essay
The Physics of Semiconductor Devices The purpose of this paper is to give a greater understanding
of the semiconductor world, for Physics 100 students who have a little knowledge of electronics. I
will cover conductors, insulators, semiconductors, and the operation of a diode and a transistor. The
reason that it is important to understand these devices is the vast effect that they have had on our
modern world. Our lives are filled by electronics, especially in this computerized age that we live in,
and I have found that a knowledge of some electronics has greatly helped my understanding of the
many electronic devices that we deal with on a daily basis.
To understand the physics of a semiconductor device it is first necessary to ... Show more content on
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The outer shell of electrons that orbit the nucleus of an atom is called the valance shell. This is what
makes a copper atom conduct. For a copper atom the number of electrons is one. When a charge of
electricity is placed in the end of a wire the electrons move into the wire. Since there is only one
electron in the valance shell of a copper atom it can be easily dislodged with a small amount of
energy causing it to jump to the next atom. This will then cause the valance electron of that atom to
jump to the next atom and so forth. This movement happens very fast making it possible for a large
number of electrons to move through the wire. An example of a conductive atom is shown figure 1.
Now we will move onto other materials that are involved with electronics. The next group of
materials that will be discussed are insulators. An insulator is a material that does not conduct
electricity at all but will resist or stop it from traveling further. An insulating atom has eight
electrons in its valance shell which makes this shell complete. Eight is the most electrons that any
atoms can have in their valance shell this is why these are called insulators, no more electrons can fit
in the valance shell of these atoms.
We have now discussed the two extremes in electronic materials; a conductor, and an insulator we
will now move to a material that lies in between these two, a semiconductor. The

Everyday Use Of Electrons In Atoms
Electrons in Atoms
Electrons are the negatively charged particles that can be found in the atom. Electrons will be
located around clouds that surround the nucleus of an atom. All Together the atom creates a negative
charge that will make sure that it balances the positive charge of the protons in the atomic nucleus.
These clouds are at a certain distance from the nucleus which is properly put into the shells. Due to
the fact that electrons move so quickly it is impossible to see where they are at certain point in time.
The overall shape of the shells change depending on how many electrons an element contains. The
higher the atomic number the more higher the shells plus an electron of an atom will have. The main
in electrons is the way that all the elements rely on each other without the negative charge is the
positive will not be good in any use. The electrons are an everyday use to use because of the fact of
electricity. The small particles flows through wires and circuits that create currents of electricity.
Electrons flow from negative charged parts to the positive charged. The negative charge part of a
circuit will have extra electrons, meanwhile the positive charge will want more electrons. When
electrons move throughout ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The radiation will focus onto a narrow beam before passing a slit on the lead sheet. A small piece of
gold was put in the front of the screen that was covered with zinc. "It would produce a burst of light
called a scintillation, which was visible through a viewing microscope attached to the back of the
screen. The screen itself was movable, allowing Rutherford and his associates to determine whether
or not any alpha particles were being deflected by the gold foil" (The Editors of Encyclopedia

63cu Research Paper
The main components that make up copper are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons are
positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons don't have a charge. The nucleus
is at the center of the atom, and it contains protons and neutrons. Electrons are "stored" in energy
levels. Since protons have a +1 charge and neutrons don't have a charge, the nucleus is positively
charged. The two stable copper isotopes that should be describe are 63Cu and 65Cu. The
composition of 63Cu is 0.6915 (15); the composition of 65Cu is 0.3085 (15) ("Isotopes of Copper."
Wikipedia). The abundance of 63Cu is 69.17% (2); the abundance of 65Cu is 30.83% (2) ("Copper
Isotopes" – Cu Isotopes). The nucleus of any copper atom has 29 protons and electrons. ... Show
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There are 29 electrons in the copper atom. There are 29 electrons in copper because copper has to
stay neutral, which means that there are also 29 protons. So, since electrons have a negative charge,
and protons have a positive charge, 29 negative plus 29 positive equals no charge/neutral. The
electron configuration in symbols can be translated by: the first number is the shell number, the
letter is the subshell, and the "to the power of," or superscript, is the number of electrons that are
present in the subshell. In the "s" subshell, there is 1 orbital, in the "p" subshell there are 3 orbitals,
and in "d" subshells, there are 5 orbitals ("Electron Shell." Wikipedia). Each orbital can hold a
maximum of two electrons. So, the "s" subshell can hold 2 electrons, the "p" subshell can hold 6
electrons, and the "d" subshell can hold 10 electrons. Since there are 29 electrons in copper, all of
the orbitals in the subshells will be filled, except there will be one extra "s" subshell if you use 1s2
2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1. The fourth shell is the highest shell that contains electrons in copper. So,
if you were to add up 4s + 4p + 4d + 4f, it would equal 32 electrons ("Electron Shell."

My Experience At The Los Angeles Locos Hotel
I'll always remember the joy the Los Angeles Locos Hotel brought me in Mexico. I never would've
thought the trip would consist such excitement. The night we saw sea turtles laying eggs, going
horseback riding on the beach, and watching a stormy day. Leaving was the hard part, the people I'll
never forget. Waking to the noise of the people's morning gatherings, drifting to sleep as the ocean
waves collided with the sand. My grandmother woke me one morning to tell me where our trip
would lie this month. She revealed the location and I started jumping all around the room, especially
excited after finding out what activities would be included. A week later I struggled to sleep,
familiar with the feeling of too much excitement. The kind a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The ocean was so beautiful and blue. It seemed to never end and it was widely open. I walked back
inside and admired the two beds, the way they were made and the orange ribbon in the middle of
each bed. We put our luggage away and spent the first day by the pool, exploring the resort. Soon it
was dark and we were walking on the beach. We noticed colorful lights coming from a small glass
building up close to a mountain. Curiously we walked up the path of stairs, we entered what looked
like a club. Once me and my friend Daniel saw the male strippers in neon underwear we ran back
outside laughing our butts off. We walked back towards the center of the resort and saw that they
were having a party. There were chairs all around, the room filled with people. There were seniors,
young adults, regular adults, and occasionally a child. They were playing games and laughing. We
found open seats and sat down, joining them laughing at the people 's attempts to play charades. At
2 am we headed back to the hotel room and got some rest because the next day was already planned,
and we'd need energy for all that was going to happen. We all woke up early to see the sunrise and
got ready for an eventful day. We walked down the beach to see the seagulls and fishermen. I asked
one of the fisherman if I could feed the seagulls and he gave me three enormous handfuls of fish. I
was throwing the fish at the seagulls, trying to make sure I was being fair and equal. They crowded
me eagerly and I

All Quiet On The Western Front Rhetorical Analysis
In the incredible book, All Quiet on the Western Front written by Erich Maria Remarque, the reader
follows Paul Baumer, a young man who enlisted in the war. The reader goes on a journey and
watches Paul and his comrades face the sheer brutality of war. In this novel, the author tries to
convey the fact that war should not be glorified. Through bombardment, gunfire, and the gruesome
images painted by the author, one can really understand what it would have been like to serve on the
front lines in the Great War. The sheer brutality of the war can be portrayed through literary devices
such as personification, similes, and metaphors. Personification gives human characteristics to
nonhuman or nonliving things such as a coffin, and using personification can really show the sheer
brutality of war. Paul at this point in the novel had been underground for a ridiculous amount of time
due bombardment. He then chooses to crawl into a coffin to protect himself. Paul said, "But the
shelling is stronger than everything. It wipes out the sensibilities, I merely crawl still deeper in the
coffin, it should protect me, and especially as Death himself lies in it too." (67) This quote Paul
gives death human–like qualities because death cannot actually lay in a coffin, and Paul said that it
should protect him, especially if death lies in it too. He is saying that this war is so brutal that he
would rather lay in a coffin with death to comfort him. Paul the narrator gives bombs and artillery

Energy Gap Between Electron Shells
Numerous metals and different substances radiate splendid shades of obvious light when they are
warmed. The colors originate from electrons moving between energy levels. The energy gaps
between their electron shells relate with the energy of the colour they give off. so the energy of
every colour of light matches the energy gaps between electron shells in different atoms.
Electrons are orchestrated into energy levels. Shells are concentric districts of electron thickness that
are fixated on the core(nucleus) of the atom. The bigger the shell, the further its electrons are from
the nucleus and the higher their energy is is. electrons fill the most reduced shells before filling
higher shells. So there are shells, and there are energy gaps ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
When white light (which is made of all the colors of the rainbow) strikes a red object, its atoms
specifically absorb and re–emit red light; all the other colors of light simply cause the object to get a
bit warmer.
At the point when a fire works blast, it conveys smoldering protuberances that contain, in addition to
other things, metal salts. These metal salts are warmed and start sparkle in fabulous hues. Metal salts
that are regularly utilized as a part of fireworks presentations include: strontium carbonate (red
fireworks), calcium chloride (orange fireworks), sodium nitrate (yellow fireworks), barium chloride
(green fireworks) and copper chloride (blue fireworks). Purple fireworks are typically produced by
use of a mixture of strontium (red) and copper (blue) compounds.
The metal salts are stuffed into a firecracker tiny pellets called stars. After a firecracker is lighten, a
lift charge moves the firecracker into the sky while a circuit gradually blazes into the inside of the
firecracker shell. As the circuit achieves the center of the firecracker, it blasts lighting the stars that
contain the metal

To Kill A Mockingbird Character Analysis
"Atticus when they finally saw him...He was real nice"
"Most people are, Scout, when you finally see them." (a life in Maycomb) To Kill a Mockingbird is
a story about shells – distinctions of a person based on character, actions, circumstances, or race that
society uses to define him. A few characters in this novel, though, can see through these shells, into
the person beneath. Unfortunately, the rest of the world is quite different... Harper Lee wrote To Kill
a Mockingbird in the 1950s, a time of excessive prejudice and contempt in her home state of
Alabama. Through carving out her own childhood and the world around her, Lee wrote a novel
widely known as the 20th century's greatest work of literature.
To Kill a Mockingbird focuses in the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scout, and Jem, her brother, see through shells of many people. After a trial, Atticus tells Jem, "If
you had been on that jury, son, and eleven other boys like you, Tom would be a free man. We do see
the outcome that happens when shells are ignored. At night, a group of rough woodmen approach
Atticus, ready to exert force on his defendant. Scout suddenly interjects the group, and begins
talking with a big gruff man, Mr. Cunningham of his work, and his son, Walter. The gruffness of the
group is immediately broken; all the men are shocked. Scout recalls, "The men were all looking at
me, some had their mouths half open...Their attention amounted to fascination." A few moments
later, Mr. Cunningham bends down and says to Scout, "I'll tell [Walter] you said hey, little lady." The
group is then dispersed, a brute, cold natured bunch shown to be calm, rational men. Later on, we
learn that this incident positively effects Tom Robinson's case. But this natural perspective evident
in children doesn't last. [JEM SHELL] Directly after praising Jem, Atticus tells him, "So far, nothing
in life has interfered with your reasoning process...There's something in our world that makes men
lose their heads." So, what is this thing that pushes men to turn into judgmental beings? We learn
that it is a conflict between our natural idea of what men should do and their actual actions. Jem asks
Scout "If there's just one kind of folks, why can't they

The Film Of All Time
During the summer of 2008, one of the greatest animated films of all time was released by Pixar
Animation Studios. This movie, WALL·E, was an instant classic in my mind, both the first time I
saw it, and to this day. The most shattering part of the film was its depiction of both our future as
humans, as well as that of our planet. Earth has become a wasteland filled with discarded trash.
Garbage has piled up in landfills, until the entire surface has become one endless ocean of waste.
There is no water to be found, no vegetation, and no life of any kind, except for one desolate
cockroach. The only other habitant is a small, box–shaped robot, the title character, programmed to
clean up Earth; however, we can plainly see that this will be an ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This is a plausible future for our world. Certainly not this year, maybe not in fifty years, but at some
point, our arrogant use of hazardous materials without regard for the well–being of the Earth. And
I'm not talking about industrial pesticides or obscure beauty products, but rather everyday plastic.
The type seen in the dozens of food wrappers you threw out just today. A safer, more
environmentally–friendly alternative is critical to the future of our planet; and there is hope, in the
form of bioplastics, specifically shrilk, that is more eco–friendly product and has countless potential
applications. Currently, plastics are an enormous environmental concern, and their negative impacts
on our world are becoming more evident over time. Chemicals from plastics are now being found
throughout our environment, in the air, in dust, and even in the food we eat (Knoblauch, 2009). Such
chemicals can be extremely harmful and should not be ingested or consumed by humans. One such
substance, bisphenol A, known as BPA, is found in the plastic of water bottles and pop cans, even
reusable ones (Knoblauch, 2009). This has led to 93% of people currently having traces of BPA in
their bodies (Knoblauch, 2009).
However, the harmful effects of plastics are not limited only to humans; many other living
organisms suffer from the use of plastics. In particular, marine animals are affected, as

Lab Report Essay
Inorganic Chemistry
1. A subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge is protons.
2. A subatomic particle with a single negative electrical charge is electrons.
3. A subatomic particle which is electrically neutral is neutrons.
4. The nucleus of an atom is made up of _protons_ and _neutrons.
5. The number of electrons forming a charge cloud around the nucleus is (pick one of the following)
greater than; equal to; smaller than the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
6. The atomic number of potassium (3919K) is_19_. This means that a potassium atom has _19
protons and 19_ electrons.
7. What is the atomic mass of K? ___39________.
8. The atomic mass represents the number of _protons_ and _neutrons.
9. The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Match the descriptions with the types of bonds listed (Covalent; Hydrogen; Ionic)
a. atoms lose electrons if they have just one or two electrons in their valence shells; they gain
electrons if they need just one or two electrons to complete the valence shell as in K+CL– __Ionic
bonds_
b. This bond is bridge–like; weak link between a hydrogen atom and another atom such as oxygen
or nitrogen __hydrogen bond__
c. a pair of electrons is shared in this type of bond __covalent__
22. The atoms of water have (polar covalent; nonpolar covalent; ionic) bonds
Polar covalent and nonpolar covalent
23. As a result of the water molecule bond, each (hydrogen; oxygen) has a slightly negative charge
and each (hydrogen; oxygen) has a slightly positive charge.
Oxygen and Hydrogen.
24. Hydrogen bonds contribute to a property of water called cohesion or the tendency of water
molecules to stick together.
25. What do we call water when other substances (solutes) dissolve in it? Polar Covalent.
26. What special bond (in water) opposes water's molecular movement when water absorbs energy
requiring water to have more heat added to raise its temperature? Hydrogen Bond.

27. Which pH is most acid (4; 7; 10)
4
28. Which pH has the highest concentration of OH– ions? (4; 7; 10)
10
29. Which solution has a pH closest to neutral? (Stomach acid; blood; lemon juice; soap, household
bleach)
Stomach acid
30. Pairs of weak acids and

Polarization of X-Rays
Polarization of X–rays was first demonstrated by Barkla. He was performing experiments on the
secondary X–ray radiation phenomena (C. G. Barkla 1905). He used a block of graphite that scatters
the primary X–ray beam from an X–ray tube. The scattered intensity of the X–ray beam was
measured in two mutually perpendicular directions. He denoted the scattered intensity in a parallel
direction to the tube axis I_pand the one scattered at right angles I_s. The degree of polarization for
X–rays emitted at an angle θ to the direction of the electron beam is given as (Agarwal 1991):
P_(pol(θ))=(I_s–I_p)/(I_s+I_p )
Barkla found that for θ=90°,I_p was larger than I_s by ≈20%. This discovery that X–rays can be
partly polarized proved that they are transverse electromagnetic waves. However, Barkla actually
studied and measured the polarization of the bremsstrahlung (continuous) radiation.
When electrons emitted from a heated cathode filament are accelerated by a potential difference U
and impinge onto an anode target (for example tungsten), the motions of the electrons with in the
target are influenced by the strong Coulomb fields of the atomic nuclei. As a result, the electrons are
decelerated within small distances and; consequently, a broadband bremsstrahlung or continuous
radiation is produced. Figure 2.3. PENELOPE simulated spectrum of a bremsstrahlung from a
tungsten metal for 20 keV electron beam energy
The intensity distribution of the emitted broad radiation continuum

The Los Angeles Locos Hotel
Los Angeles Locos
I'll always remember the joy the Los Angeles Locos Hotel brought me in Mexico. I never would've
thought the trip would consist such excitement. The night we saw sea turtles laying eggs, going
horseback riding on the beach, and watching a stormy day. Leaving was the hard part, the people I'll
never forget. Waking to the noise of the people's morning gatherings, drifting to sleep as the ocean
waves collided with the sand. My grandmother woke me one morning to tell me where our trip
would lie this month. She revealed the location and I started jumping all around the room, especially
excited after finding out what activities would be included. A week later I struggled to sleep,
familiar with the feeling of too much ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As we pulled into the giant resort, I had excitement written all over my face. We grabbed our keys
after what felt like hours of waiting. I ran up the stairs, keeping my eyes open for the number "210".
Once I found the brown oak door, I ran inside taking in every detail of the room. I opened the door
to one room and saw the dimmed, brown tiled bathroom. Then I ran across the room and opened the
sliding doors to see the balcony with the view of the entire back of the resort, the enormous pool
from one end of the resort to the other end. The ocean was so beautiful and blue, It seemed to never
end. I walked back inside and admired the two beds, the way they were made and the orange ribbon
in the middle of each bed. We put our luggage away and spent the first day by the pool, exploring
the resort. Soon it was dark and we were walking on the beach. We noticed colorful lights coming
from a small glass building up close to a mountain. Curiously we walked up the path of stairs, we
entered what looked like a club. Once me and my friend Daniel saw the male strippers in neon
underwear we ran back outside laughing. We walked back towards the center of the resort and saw
that they were having a party. There were chairs all around, the room filled with people. They were
playing games and laughing. We found open seats and sat down, joining them laughing at the people
's attempts to play charades. At 2 am we headed back to the hotel room and got some rest because
the next day was

Chlorine Essay In Chemistry
Chlorine is used for many useful purposes in the world of medicine. For this reason, it is important
to understand what chlorine is and how it works at the atomic level. The first notable piece of
information taken from Figure 1 is the shells of the model. Each shell can be thought of as an orbit
around an atom's nucleus. The shells, from the inside out, are labeled as the 1 shell, 2 shell and 3
shell. They can also be called K shell, L shell and M shell, respectively. The first most important
piece of information taken from Figure 1 are the shells. Each shell has a fixed number of electrons
that it can hold. 1 shell can hold up to two electrons, 2 shell can hold up to eight electrons and 3
shell can hold up to 18 electrons. The number of shells ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The second most important piece of information taken from Figure 1 is the number of protons in the
model. The number of protons corresponds to the atomic number, which can be found on the
Periodic Table. Chlorine has a total of 17 protons, so there are 17 protons drawn on the Bohr model.
From the inside out, the number of electrons drawn on each shell are 2, 8 and 7. The third piece of
information taken from Figure 1 is that Chlorine has a total of 18 electrons. This means that there is
one more electron than there is protons. Because of this, chlorine becomes a negatively charged
atom. Chlorine desperately wants another electron to fill its outer shell, so it bonds very nicely with
atoms in which it can share an electron with. Chlorine has the ability to create many ions because of
its need for another electron to become stable. The molecular structure of chlorine is important to
understand. The Bohr model of chlorine helps to understand why chlorine reacts the way it does
with other elements. Without the knowledge of what chlorine can work with and what it cannot, it is
now possible to create medications in order to treat medical disorders. Knowing the facts of the
molecular structure take away guess work and thus speed up the process of medical

What Is A Diary?
What is a diary?
A diary is a bridge between the written language and our deepest emotions. The reason why a diary
is so special is because it is most often used for one's self, and not intended for publication.
Therefore, there is no need to hide one's true emotions since what is written has no chance of being
shared or judged by anyone. Since a diary usually remains confidential, and free from judgement
and criticism, it is one of the only places where a person has no need for a filter. It can be said that a
diary is an extension of the mind1.
I still don't get it...
Imagine our ocean. Our ocean is filled with around 93 to 236 thousand metric tons of plastic2. This
ocean, although very much real, is also metaphorically the present state of our self–conscious minds
against society. It basically represents our vast pool of consciousness. And the plastic? Well, those
are all the rules, barriers and limits established and built by the culture that surrounds us. With all
these rules, barriers and limits blocking and detouring our train of thought, how can we navigate our
way through the murky, dark waters of our polluted consciousness? That is where a diary comes in
to save the day. With a diary, we don't have to navigate a maze of a million different opinions and
proper etiquettes, simply because we don't want to be judged. The diary is our open book to a far
deeper and honest inner reflection of ourselves, and all we need to do... is simply to start writing.
I'm starting to get

The Periodic Table : Potassium, Sulfur, And Krypton
The Periodic Table contains 118 elements, all different with shape, size, and what it's made up of.
Out of the 118, 3 were chosen and they will be discussed later in this paper. Those elements are
Potassium, Sulfur, and Krypton.
The first is Potassium. Potassium was first discovered and isolated by Sir Humphrey Davy, a
Cornish chemist and inventor, in 1807. Potassium is highly reactive, but Davy isolated the element
through a process what's called electrolysis, a process by which an electric current is passed through
the element to cause chemical change within the element. Potassium could be extracted through
minerals such as carnalite, langbeinite, and polyhalite minerals. Potassium is also found in the
Earth's crust, and makes up around 1.5 to 2% of the Earth's crust. Potassium also can't be found in
nature as a free element. Potassium is atomic number 19 in the periodic table and is symbolized as
the letter "K" in the periodic table. The element is in Group 1, Period 4 on the periodic table. The
element is an alkali metal and has somewhat of silver color to the element. The structure of the
element has a cubic shape at room temperature and has a density of 0.862 g/cm
Elnaka 2 cubed. The melting and boiling point of the element are 63.65 °C (146.57 °F) for melting
and 759.0 °C (1398°F) for boiling. The atomic mass of the element is 39.0983 amu (atomic mass
unit). The element is made up of 19 protons, 19 electrons,

Atomic Structure Research Paper
Atomic structure In the nucleus of an atom there are protons and neutrons the number of protons and
neutrons depends on the element and ,if it is an isotope of that element. E.g. carbon 12, carbon 12
has six neutrons six protons and 6 electrons . Electrons are located around the nucleus of the atom.
Electrons are in shells, the shell closest to the nucleus is 1 , the one after 2 and so on. Each shell can
only hold up to a certain number of electrons . the first can hold up to 2 , the second 8 (2+6) the
third up to 18 (2+6+10). The general formula for finding out how many electrons a shell can hold is
2n^2. Electrons have a negative charge , while protons have a positive and neutrons have no charge.
A atom has the same number of protons and electrons. An ion is formed when an atom loses or gains
a electrons .
Radioactivity is when energy is emitted from the nucleus due to the nucleus being unstable. The 3
types of radiation are Alpha ,Beta and gamma. Alpha particles have 2 protons and two neutrons.
Examples of radioactive nuclei that emit alpha radiation. Are : uranium, thorium, actinium, and
radium They are very ionising so they give energy off onto whatever they are in contact with.
Therefore, it loses energy more quickly. They are not very penetrating so can be stopped by a piece
of paper or skin. Beta particles have 1 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
isotopes have the same chemical properties as their elements but different chemical properties. This
is because isotopes of an element have the same number of electrons as an atom of that particular
element. The electron arrangement is what affects chemical properties, and isotopes have the same
electron arrangement , so they have the same chemical properties. However the have a different
number of neutrons which changes the mass number. The mass number is what determines the
physical properties , such as boiling point and

Electron Element
The electron arrangement of an atom represents the particular orbitals in which are occupied by
electrons in an atom. The relationship between the electron arrangement of elements and their
position in the periodic table rely on an element's period, in which corresponds to the element's
highest occupied energy level. This is due to periodic properties, this basically means that the
elements properties are predictable based on their position within the periodic table. The periodic
table is a result of the periodic law, this law was based upon observations made on the elements
recurring properties and which elements have similar properties. The theorem in which explains this
law is the quantum mechanical theory.
When moving across each period, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The atomic radius is the measure of size of its atoms, usually the mean or average distance from the
center of the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding cloud of electrons. Ionization Energy is the
energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion. The first or initial ionization
energy of a molecule is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of
isolated gaseous atoms or ions. . Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract
a bonding pair of electrons. The physical properties include color, melting point, and freezing point.
These properties all relates to electron configuration due to the element's valence shells. For
example, noble gasses tend to be stable because the valence shell is full, and halogens tend to react
quickly because one electron is absent meaning they can't have a full valence octet. Metals are found
on the left hand side of the periodic table, they are good conductors, have a high melting point, and a
large atomic radius. Nonmetals are located on the right hand side of the periodic table; they have
high ionization energy and electronegativity.
In conclusion, the relationship between the electron arrangement of elements and their position on
the periodic table have two attributes in which include The number of occupied shells is the same as
the period number. As well as, the number of electrons in the outer shell is equivalent to the group

Atomic Synthesis Essay
The electrons that are in the atom are stored in energy levels called shells. The lowest energy level
must be filled first before the electrons can fill the next shell. The first shell can hold two electrons,
the second shell can hold up to eight, while the third shell holds a maximum of eighteen electrons.
The outermost shell hold what are called valence electrons. When an atom's outermost shell is
complete, it will be stable, while when the shell is incomplete the atom is reactive. To be a stable
atom, most elements need eight electrons in their outmost shell, also referred to as the octet rule
(OpenStax 2015).
When atoms are in their ground state, the electrons are in the lowest energy level and closest to the
nucleus. The levels are represented by the letter n. For the lowest energy level, n is equal to 1 and as
the electron increases in energy level the n increases by whole number, because electrons cannot
exist between the energy levels. When an electron gains energy, it is in its excided state. While in
this state, it absorbs photons and thus jumps to a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The colors and angle measurements were observed in the lab itself. The theoretical wavelengths for
hydrogen were calculated before the lab using the equation 1/λ=R_H (1/(n_i^2 )–1/(n_f^2 )). R
being Rydberg's constant and n representing the energy level, n_i equal to the initial level and n_f
equal to the final level. The theoretical wavelengths of helium were found online with reference to F
Jenkins and H White. The wavelengths were calculated using the equation λ=asinθ/n. The a= 1/(600
lines/mm) and the θ= the angle we measured. The energies were then calculated using the equation
E_(photon )=hc/λ .The hc was Planck's constant multiplied by the speed of

Nt1310 Unit 9 Lab Report
Periodic Table Patterns
1. Sketch the electron dot structure for the following elements (ask about the easy way to find the
valence electrons):
Na Cl
K I
Ba O
Ca S
2. Which families/groups do Na and Cl belong to?
3. Which families/groups do K and I belong to?
4. If Na undergoes a chemical reaction with Cl, and if K undergoes a chemical reaction with I, what
can you say about all the elements that belong to these 2 different families (families from questions
3 and 4)?
5. Which families/groups do Ba and O belong to?
6. Which families/groups do Ca and S belong to?
7. If Ba undergoes a chemical reaction with O, and if Ca undergoes a chemical reaction with S, what
can you say about all the elements that belong to these 2 different families (families from questions
5 and 6)?
8. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Na and K belong to the same group. How many valence electrons does each have?
9. Ba and Ca belong to the same group. How many valence electrons does each have?
10. O and S belong to the same group. How many valence electrons does each have?
11. What pattern can you observe about the number of valence electrons for the following:

a. Group 1:
b. Group 2:
c. Group 16:
d. Group 17:
12. Sketch the Bohr model for the following elements (don't worry about the number or neutrons):
Na Cl
Ca S
13. If all atoms want to have 8 electrons on their outer shell, what should happen between Na and Cl
for each atom to reach that state of having 8 valence electrons?
14. If all atoms want to have 8 electrons on their outer shell, what should happen between Ca and S
for each atom to reach that state of having 8 valence

When People Hear The Word Doping, They Think Of Athletes
When people hear the word doping, they think of athletes using drugs such as, erythropoietin, so
that they will have an advantage in their sport. However, the doping we are talking about today is
the type where elements are added to semiconductors to change its characteristics. Doping is the
process that changes the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor, like silicon. Doping is done by
adding foreign elements to the semiconductor so that the amount of valence electrons changes.
A semiconductor is a material that partly conducts electricity, it is in between an insulator and a
conductor. Semiconductors have four electrons in their valence shell, and since there needs to be
eight in the shell for it to be stable, it just has to connect ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Through doping, it creates two groups of semiconductors, N–type, which have a negative charge and
P–type, which have a positive charge. These different types of semiconductors are very important to
the world, because when the different types are used together they can create devices with special
electrical devices that have the ability to control electrical signals. Before semiconductors there were
vacuum tubes, which did the same job as semiconductors, but they were not as fast or as small as
them. Vacuum tubes, however, are very rugged and durable they can go through temporary overload
conditions.
Doped semiconductors are very useful, as they make up the base for diodes. A diode is an electronic
component that is used to make signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, etc. Doped
semiconductors also make transistors, they are devices that regulate the current flow and they act as
a switch or gate for electronic signals. Transistors have three layers of semiconductors and when one
layer senses a small change of current it creates a rapid change in the current through the whole
component. As one can see, doped semiconductors are very important as they make the base of
many electronic devices that we use daily The effects of doping semiconductors were known for a
long time in devices like crystal radio detectors and selenium rectifiers. In 1885 and 1930, Shellford
Bidwell and Bernhard Gudden

All About Covalent Bonding ! Valence Electrons
All About Covalent Bonding! Valence Electrons All About Ionic Bonding!
 Covalent bonding is when electrons are shared by atoms, which enables the atoms to gain more
stability.
 Covalent bonding is done between two nonmetal atoms.
 Molecules that are covalently bonded have low melting points because the electrons are being
shared. Plus, they are terrible conductors of electricity, because the molecule is made up of
nonmetals.
 Covalent bonds can have three types of bonds, a single bond. A double bond, and a triple bond.
 Gilbert N. Lewis created an illustration called the "Lewis dot structure" which portrayed covalent
bonds.  ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By sharing these valence electrons, it creates a full electron shell. o Demonstration: H2O, the water
molecule is the perfect example of how covalent bonding uses valence electrons to create a full
electron shell. Oxygen has six electrons on the energy level 2p. For that energy level to be full, it
can have two more electrons. Therefore, two hydrogens bond with that one oxygen, to ensure its
stability. Hydrogen bonds with the oxygen because in order for hydrogen's outermost shell (1s) to be
filled, it needs one electron to be shared with it. So, oxygen shares one electron with each of the two
hydrogens, and the two hydrogens hare its one electron with the one oxygen.
 Atoms that use ionic bonding transfer valence electrons. Metals give nonmetals electrons, which
make the metals positively charged, which is called a cation. Nonmetals receive electrons from
metals which make the nonmetals negatively charged which is called an

Wilfred Owen's Use Of Personification In Anthem For Doomed...
War is not heroic. War is sickness, struggle, and death. This is the message that poet and World War
I soldier Wilfred Owen wanted to instill in his people back home. Those back home talked of glory
and national pride and rooted for their soldiers, however, they were unaware of the horrors these
soldiers witnessed and experienced. The soldiers and their people back home were not only
separated by distance but by mental barriers, which Owen showcases in his poetry. Owen's use of
personification in "Anthem for Doomed Youth" degrades the soldiers to objects to show how the
war dehumanized them to intentionally create a disconnect between the audience and the soldiers.
Owen manifests the soldiers' ferocious emotions through their guns to demonstrate the
dehumanization they experienced when killing someone. When Wilfred says "What passing–bells
for these who die as cattle? / – Only the monstrous anger of the guns," it strips the soldiers of their
identity and humanity just as killing someone in war did to them (1–2). By taking away the soldiers'
identities and channeling their emotions through their weaponry and deeming them "monstrous" it
makes it more difficult for the audience to develop a personal connection to the soldiers and their
feelings, which is exactly what Owen wants. People back home during the war could not possibly
relate or put themselves in the shoes of these soldiers, which Owen highlights to the reader through
this method. To be able to kill someone, they had

Atom and Electron Configuration Essay
Name: ______________________________________ Date: ________________________
Student Exploration: Electron Configuration
Vocabulary: atomic number, atomic radius, Aufbau principle, chemical family, diagonal rule,
electron configuration, Hund's rule, orbital, Pauli exclusion principle, period, shell, spin, subshell
Prior Knowledge Questions (Do these BEFORE using the Gizmo.)
1. Elvis Perkins, a rather shy fellow, is getting on the bus shown at right. Which seat do you think he
will probably sit in? Mark this seat with an "E."
2. Marta Warren gets on the bus after Elvis. She is tired after a long day at work. Where do you
think she will sit? Mark this seat with an "M."
3. In your experience, do strangers getting on a bus like to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Apply: Atoms are most stable when their outermost shell is full. If their outermost shell is not full,
atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until the shell fills up. While doing this, atoms react and
form chemical bonds with other atoms.
Based on this, what can you infer about the reactivity of helium and neon? They are both noble
gases so they are very resistant to a chemical reaction and don't react to other elements.
11. Think and discuss: Select the PERIODIC TABLE tab, and look at the second row, or period, of
the table. How does this row reflect the subshells of the second shell?
The second period on the periodic table consists of elements that are filling the 2nd energy level.
Activity B:
Atomic radii
Get the Gizmo ready:
On the PERIODIC TABLE tab, select Na (sodium).
Select the ELECTRON CONFIGURATION tab.

Question: How do the radii of atoms change across a period of the periodic table?
1. Predict: Positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom are attracted to negatively charged
electrons.
How do you think the atomic radii will change as electrons are added to a shell?
As more electrons are added the distance will increase which cause atomic radius to change.
2.

Reflective Essay: The First Vietnam War
She didn't know they were coming; none of them did. There was no warning; no way to predict their
arrival. The only greeting they received were the shots of rifled–muskets and the sound of lead
bullets whizzing through the air. The smell of gunpowder quickly became noticeable. The navy
coated men around her jumped into action, but were slowly being overtaken. The only attempt she
could make to detach herself from the shouts and screams surrounding her, was to focus on the soft
rushing of the bubbling river nearby. The land was serene with spring. Tennessee was ablaze with
bright sunshine, fragrant flowers, and lush, spring green vegetation. In camp along the banks of the
Tennessee River at Pittsburg Landing, the soldiers of Major General Robert Campbell's Union Army
of the Tennessee were lounging ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The woods were filled with "Johnny–jump–ups," – wildflowers that carpeted the ground in a river of
color. Army nurses, and the only females in camp, Lauren Williams and her friend Sara Moore had
their small, shared tent set up right along the beautiful Tennessee River. The men busied themselves
amidst the land; camping, cooking, and training. The Union army was at ease. Compared with what
was to come, this scene could not have been more ironic or more tragic. A sudden Confederate
attack in force in the early morning hours caused half–awake Union troops to flee their camps. The
battle broke full force at daybreak Sunday, April 6th. At sunrise Lauren heard the thunder of distant
musketry. The long roll had called the regiment out, and they did not know what an hour may bring
forth. Pickets had been driven in, and skirmishing was going on at the front. Distant musketry and
the rumbling of artillery past Lauren's tent gave the situation a look of reality which she had not
dreamed of an hour

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