Electron Affinity And Ionization Energy

Electron Affinity And Ionization Energy
Recently in class we have discovered the meaning of electron affinity and ionization energy. We
know that ionization energy is the energy required to be absorbed when an ionic bond removes an
electron from an atom. We also know that electron affinity is how easily an atom will accept an
electron into its shells when trying to make itself neutral. This means that both of these terms play a
big role when an atom loses or gains an electron.
The ionization energy is the energy to remove an electron from an atom. A trend for ionization
energy is that it generally increases left to right across a row on the periodic table except for the
noble gases which have closed shells. For example, lithium requires only 520 kJ/mol to ionize it
while helium, the noble gas right next to it in the periodic table, requires 2372 kJ/mol. The
ionization energy can be thought of as opposite to the electronegativity of an element in the way that
a low ionization energy gives away that an element easily loses electrons to a reaction, while a high
electronegativity shows that an element strongly wants to have electrons in a reaction.
The electron affinity is an amount of energy that changes when ... Show more content on
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Electron affinity, on the other hand, describes the energy that is released when an electron binds to
an atom. This tells us that since energy is released, the electron affinities will be negative. Another
example of the differences between electron affinity and ionization energy is that ionization energy
is related with making cations from neutral atoms due to the fact that it measures the amount of
energy needed to remove an electron. In contrast, electron affinity is related with making anions due
to the fact that it is the amount of energy that changes when a negative ion is formed from an
electron being added. These are two big example of how electron affinity and ionization energy are
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Everyday Use Of Electrons In Atoms
Electrons in Atoms
Electrons are the negatively charged particles that can be found in the atom. Electrons will be
located around clouds that surround the nucleus of an atom. All Together the atom creates a negative
charge that will make sure that it balances the positive charge of the protons in the atomic nucleus.
These clouds are at a certain distance from the nucleus which is properly put into the shells. Due to
the fact that electrons move so quickly it is impossible to see where they are at certain point in time.
The overall shape of the shells change depending on how many electrons an element contains. The
higher the atomic number the more higher the shells plus an electron of an atom will have. The main
in electrons is the way that all the elements rely on each other without the negative charge is the
positive will not be good in any use. The electrons are an everyday use to use because of the fact of
electricity. The small particles flows through wires and circuits that create currents of electricity.
Electrons flow from negative charged parts to the positive charged. The negative charge part of a
circuit will have extra electrons, meanwhile the positive charge will want more electrons. When
electrons move throughout ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The radiation will focus onto a narrow beam before passing a slit on the lead sheet. A small piece of
gold was put in the front of the screen that was covered with zinc. "It would produce a burst of light
called a scintillation, which was visible through a viewing microscope attached to the back of the
screen. The screen itself was movable, allowing Rutherford and his associates to determine whether
or not any alpha particles were being deflected by the gold foil" (The Editors of Encyclopedia

Electron Radiation
Atoms are the microscopic building blocks of all matter in the universe. Everything around us are
made of atoms, including radiation. The centre of an atom is called the nucleus, it is made of two
particles: protons, which carry a positive charge and neutrons, which have no charge. Electron carry
a negative charge and it is outside of a nucleus. The attraction of these negative electrons to the
positive nucleus is what keep the atom together. All the atom of the given elements has a specific
number of protons and neutrons, but sometimes it will have too many of those and become
radioactive and an unstable atom is called a radioisotope. When radioactive want to be stable again,
they must release energy until they get back to a balanced state. ... Show more content on
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Firstly, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant leaks radioactive water into underground and to
sea. The effect cause earthquake in 2011. After the earth quake on June 2011, scientists measured
that 5,000 to 15,000 terabecquerels of radioactive material was reaching the ocean. Since the
incident in 2011, scientists measured levels of radioactivity in fish and other sea life. Several species
of fish from this area had caesium levels that exceeded Japan's regulatory limit for seafood.
Scientists say the groundwater leaks could become worse, but warn against drawing conclusions
about the impacts on sea life before peer–reviewed studies are completed. Secondly, gamma rays
can be used in medical treatment to kill cancer cell. However gamma can be extremely dangerous
because they are a very powerful source of power, if they delivered in an unmonitored and
uncontrolled way they can kill humans, animals and plants. Gamma rays however can also disrupt
the physical properties of materials. They can cause plastics and steel to become brittle and to
eventually break.
In conclusion, radioactivity has both negative and positive aspects. Negative impacts include the
radiation leaking and damage healthy organism or cell during treatment while positive aspects
consist of many different uses in medical science, security and daily life items. I support the uses of
radioactivity because the positive aspects outweigh the negative aspects and I believe that in the
future the radioactivity can be used positively in many other

How Would Joseph John Thomson Use The Electron?
The race for an answer is over! All the scientists out there, put down your beakers and eyedroppers
for just a moment and educate yourselves through this article. A new discovery in chemistry has
shaken the science world as we know it. Joseph John Thomson, an incredible scientist living
amongst us today has discovered a new negative particle, one he has appropriately named the
"electron". Now we're sure all of you are asking the same question: How did he do it? And of
course, we have the answer! Thomson had discovered the electron during a series of experiments
designed to "study the nature of electric discharge in a high–vacuum cathode–ray tube". To put it
simply, it had been had discovered by experimenting with beams of particles produced

The Atom And The Atomic Of The Energy Level Of Its Electrons
This energy will excite the affected atom, raising the energy level of its electrons. If these electrons
are excited past the range of the nuclei's binding attractive force, then the electron will jettison from
the atom. These two particles, the ionized atom and electron, are now detectable indicating the
presence of a neutron. This is the material ionization phenomenon (Crane and Baker). The nuclear
reaction induction phenomenon occurs when a larger nucleus is struck by a neutron. There is a
probability that the nucleus will absorb the neutron and become unstable. This instability results in
the decay of gamma rays or other particles such as alpha particles and protons. These particles are
easily detected and also indicate the presence ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the conversion of alternating current to direct current, electrons from alternating current will also
enter the diode on the left. However, in part to the oscillating nature of alternating current, the diode
output of direct current will be relatively choppy, since electrons can only move towards the electron
holes in the P–type semiconductor (Kuphaldt).
As a result of the choppy nature of the direct current output, a capacitor is used to smooth the
electron fluxes (Copello). A capacitor is an electrical component that stores charge. In its most basic
form, a capacitor is made up of two metal plates with an insulated layer between them
("Capacitors"). As the electrons flow into the capacitor, their concentration and charge builds up on
one plate. Additionally, due to the repulsive nature of electrons, the buildup of electrons on one plate
will push the electrons from the other plate, creating a current out of the capacitor ("Capacitors").
This makes one plate positively charged and the other negatively charged. At this point, the
capacitor is storing energy. So, the capacitor smooths the fluctuating direct current by slowly
releasing its charge between input spikes ("Capacitors"). This generates a more consistent flow of
direct current to the electric grids.
Another primary component of the Farnsworth Fusor is its two concentric electrical grids. The DC
current produced by the diode will be run

Atoms In Electrons
Atoms in Electrons "Energy levels in Atoms exist all over the world. Some atoms consist of protons
and neutrons making up a nucleus; they are surrounded by electrons. Rutherford made designs and
conclusions to develop his nuclear atomic model. Although Rutherford's model couldn't explain
other properties of elements, such as why metals or compounds of metals give off colors when the
flame is heated" (Wilbraham et al 136). John Dalton. (Early nineteenth century) He combined an
idea of elements with the earlier theory of atoms. He had the following ideas about matter: (1)
matter is made up of atoms. (Wikipedia) Matter is made up of very tiny particles called atoms.
Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole–number ratios to form chemical ... Show
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They are all somehow using electromagnetic radiation differ only in their wave length, frequency
and energy. All of these forms of energy as well as many others are organized to what is called "The
electromagnetic spectrum." All types of electromagnetic energy travel through space as waves. So,
knowing what a wave is first, it is defined as the distance a wave travels as it completes the cycle.
That distance is measured in the appropriate pomegranate for length which can vary from
pedometers to kilometers. The frequency of a wave is the count of how many cycles occur in a given
period of time, and it is measured in hertz or in cycle per second. The speed of a wave is the product
of its wave length and frequency. Electromagnetic waves travel at a constant speed, which is the
speed of light through a vacuum. It follows through this relationship between speed, frequency, and
wavelength; that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency. This means that if all
else is equal, then increasing the frequency of a wave will decrease the wave length

Particle Physics: Nucleons And The Electron
Ever wondered what were made up of? Ever wanted to know what the atom is made up of? Or even
if particles are fundamental to our understanding of physics? Chances are you haven't, but if you
explored, what you might find is truly magical. I'm talking the particles that make us like leptons,
baryons, and mesons. Particle physics is at the core of our understanding of the universe.
So what are these particles? What is a meson or baryon? Well, it's a little more complex than that.
First, we need to understand the standard particles. Let's talk atomic scale. The atom is made up of
three fundamental particles. The proton and neutron which are nucleons and the electron. These are
what we call fermions. A fermion is a particle that makes up the matter of our universe. Fermions
have two subsets called quarks and leptons. Quarks interact with a force called the strong nuclear
force. The nuclear force binds nucleons together which makes sense because quarks make up
nucleons. Leptons, on the other ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Now an electron has a negative charge. What if there was a particle that retained all its properties
except its charge? Well, there is its called a positron and is exactly like an electron except it's
positive. Now antimatter only exists for particles with a charge. So what is a baryon? Well, it's a
particle made up of three quarks. Then what's a meson? That's more complicated. Now a quark is
the only particle we know of that has color. An antiquark is the opposite charge and color of the
quark. That's what a meson is a quark and antiquark.
I have mentioned field theory before, but what is it? Well, you have to think outside the box.
Imagine a box that is our universe. Then imagine a piece of cardboard that spreads out everywhere
in the box, that's the field. Everytime that fields vibrates there is a particle. So in scientific terms
field theory states that across every point in time and space there is a field.
Finally, we can talk about the Higgs

Essay about The Discovery of the Electron
There are many different experiments which can give varying intelligence about the makeup of
matter, in different ways and with different conclusions. In this instance I will be looking at the
discovery of the electron, how our understanding of it has changed over the years, and measure how
it has contributed to where we are today.
Joseph John Thomson (J. J. Thomson, 1856 – 1940) is widely recognized as the discoverer of the
electron. Thomson was a Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge University, and Director
of its Cavendish Laboratory, from 1884 until 1919. It is here where his most well–known, varied
and comprehensive work, in the field of conduction of electricity within gases, was undertaken. In
1897 Thompson made an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Despite this, it did not signify that the discharge had stopped, as there would still be current flowing
between the electrodes, and these are what Thompson referred to as cathode rays.
J. J. Thomson presumed that the cathode rays which emanated from the negative electrode were a
collection of particles possessing negative charges. If a negative electric potential were applied to
the upper plate, and the lower plate was positive, then the cathode ray beam would curve
downwards and the spot visible on the screen would also move downward. Thomson recorded this,
and also noted that the spot neither spread significantly, nor faded. This demonstrated that
Thompson's conclusions were correct, and cathode rays comprise a beam of like "particles" with a
negative charge.
It has transpired that the electron is not quite what Thomson concluded, as it is incorrect to believe
that electrons are either particles or waves, but cannot be both. Under some circumstances electrons
behave like particles, while under other conditions they act as waves. Subsequently, much has been
learnt about the characteristics of electrons from the work of other scientists. However, Thomson's
first painstaking experiments and adventurous hypotheses were substantiated by crucial
experimental and theoretical work. From this was derived the computers and T.V. we now generally
encounter in society: they are direct descendants from the cathode ray tube on which Thompson

Energy Gap Between Electron Shells
Numerous metals and different substances radiate splendid shades of obvious light when they are
warmed. The colors originate from electrons moving between energy levels. The energy gaps
between their electron shells relate with the energy of the colour they give off. so the energy of
every colour of light matches the energy gaps between electron shells in different atoms.
Electrons are orchestrated into energy levels. Shells are concentric districts of electron thickness that
are fixated on the core(nucleus) of the atom. The bigger the shell, the further its electrons are from
the nucleus and the higher their energy is is. electrons fill the most reduced shells before filling
higher shells. So there are shells, and there are energy gaps ... Show more content on
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When white light (which is made of all the colors of the rainbow) strikes a red object, its atoms
specifically absorb and re–emit red light; all the other colors of light simply cause the object to get a
bit warmer.
At the point when a fire works blast, it conveys smoldering protuberances that contain, in addition to
other things, metal salts. These metal salts are warmed and start sparkle in fabulous hues. Metal salts
that are regularly utilized as a part of fireworks presentations include: strontium carbonate (red
fireworks), calcium chloride (orange fireworks), sodium nitrate (yellow fireworks), barium chloride
(green fireworks) and copper chloride (blue fireworks). Purple fireworks are typically produced by
use of a mixture of strontium (red) and copper (blue) compounds.
The metal salts are stuffed into a firecracker tiny pellets called stars. After a firecracker is lighten, a
lift charge moves the firecracker into the sky while a circuit gradually blazes into the inside of the
firecracker shell. As the circuit achieves the center of the firecracker, it blasts lighting the stars that
contain the metal

Lab 9: Electron Charges
Introduction The Lab 9 includes an electron configuration from the Lab 7. However, Lab 9 focuses
much more in compounds and their electron charges. Some of the procedure includes: electron dot
symbol, ionic compound formulas, names of molecular compounds, and shapes of molecules. No
tools were required to perform Lab 9 except the writing utensils.
Procedure
Electron dot symbol, also called Lewis Dot Symbol, shows valence electrons. The valence electron
can also be found by looking at the groups of periodic table, or by looking at the last shell unit found
in electron configuration. The element symbol is at the center with dots on each side (2 at max) to
show how many valence electrons are found. The electron's charges are determined by whether

Charge-To-Mass Ratio Of Electrons Lab Report
Introduction
In 1897, J.J. Thomson performed the Nobel prize winning experiment to calculate the charge–to–
mass ratio of an electron (e/m). The purpose of this experiment is to recreate and confirm his
findings (the accepted value for the ratio is 1.758820024(11)× 〖10〗^11 C/kg). To recreate the
experiment, we will use the electron gun to generate an electron beam and induce a magnetic force,
equivalent to the magnetic part of the Lorentz Force 〖( F〗_(e,mag)=–e ( v × B ) ), that will curve
the beam counterclockwise into a circle (set–up shown in Experimental Description and Results).
We can equate the magnetic force to the centripetal force required for uniform circular motion
(Equation 2) and use the law of conservation of energy to relate ... Show more content on
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Then, the charge–to–mass ratio of electrons (e/m) was calculated using those quantities and the
magnetic field produced by the Hemholtz coils, which was calculated by equation 10. The
uncertainties for the accelerating voltage and the magnetizing current were given by the multimeter.
However, we need to calculate the uncertainties of the radii of the electron beam, the magnetic field
produced by the Hemholtz coils, and the charge–to–mass ratio of electrons (e/m). In order to do so,
we used formulas of error propagation. For the error propagation of the radius, we used: δr=
√(((δr_1)/2)^2+((δr_2)/2)^2 ) where r_1 is the radius from left side of the beam and r_2 is the radius
from the right side. For the error propagation of the magnetic field produced by the Hemholtz coils,
we used Equation 12.
δB= √(((8_0 NδI)/(5√5 R_c ))^2+((8_0 IδN)/(5√5 R_c ))^2+((–8_0 INδR_c)/(5√5 〖R_c〗^2
))^2

Atom and Electron Configuration Essay
Name: ______________________________________ Date: ________________________
Student Exploration: Electron Configuration
Vocabulary: atomic number, atomic radius, Aufbau principle, chemical family, diagonal rule,
electron configuration, Hund's rule, orbital, Pauli exclusion principle, period, shell, spin, subshell
Prior Knowledge Questions (Do these BEFORE using the Gizmo.)
1. Elvis Perkins, a rather shy fellow, is getting on the bus shown at right. Which seat do you think he
will probably sit in? Mark this seat with an "E."
2. Marta Warren gets on the bus after Elvis. She is tired after a long day at work. Where do you
think she will sit? Mark this seat with an "M."
3. In your experience, do strangers getting on a bus like to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Apply: Atoms are most stable when their outermost shell is full. If their outermost shell is not full,
atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until the shell fills up. While doing this, atoms react and
form chemical bonds with other atoms.
Based on this, what can you infer about the reactivity of helium and neon? They are both noble
gases so they are very resistant to a chemical reaction and don't react to other elements.
11. Think and discuss: Select the PERIODIC TABLE tab, and look at the second row, or period, of
the table. How does this row reflect the subshells of the second shell?
The second period on the periodic table consists of elements that are filling the 2nd energy level.
Activity B:
Atomic radii
Get the Gizmo ready:
On the PERIODIC TABLE tab, select Na (sodium).
Select the ELECTRON CONFIGURATION tab.

Question: How do the radii of atoms change across a period of the periodic table?
1. Predict: Positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom are attracted to negatively charged
electrons.
How do you think the atomic radii will change as electrons are added to a shell?
As more electrons are added the distance will increase which cause atomic radius to change.
2.

Valence Electrons and Gilbert Newton Lewis
Lewis Dot Structures Throughout the 20th century, Gilbert Newton Lewis, found a way on how to
have a more visual way to look at valence electrons for elements. This method of thinking helped
the perspective of looking at valence electrons and how those valence electrons bond with other
chemicals or substances. That method is called the Lewis dot structure. When Gilbert Newton Lewis
was learning how to draw the Lewis dot structures, he actually found useful information on what
element people were working with. In Lewis dot structures; there are important bits of information
like electron location on where the electrons are the number or types of bonds, and perhaps the
shape of the atom.
In element bonding or the elements electron placement, it is very important to take note of. This
concept is important because when figuring out the location of the electrons, you can find out what
needs to bond or exchange with other elements that it wants to. Also when finding out the electron
placement of the element, this can show the properties of the element. This part of the atom that is
capable of doing this is the valence orbital or valence shell. Another piece of important parts of a
Lewis dot structure is the shape or geometric shape of the atom. In order to discuss and predict
chemical properties, you have to understand at least the shape or figure of the atom. When you
understand this concept, you can maybe learn about the element or the atom's mass,
electronegativity,

The Impact Of Eigenvalues On The Electron Phonon Coupling...
IMPACT OF EIGENVALUES ON THE ELECTRON–PHONON COUPLING STRENGTH OF
INDIUM AND ITS BINARY ALLOYS
S. K. Chakrabarti
Department of Physics
Tribhuvan University, MMAM Campus, Biratnagar, Nepal ABSTRACT
Indium is a trivalent metal. Though chemically not so reactive, it often forms complexes within its
binary alloys. In this theoretical work we have studied the impact of eigenvalues on the electron–
phonon coupling strength of indium. We have also dealt with the same for two binary alloys of it
viz. indium–magnesium and indium–zinc. First of all we have computed the non–local screened
form factor for each of them. For this purpose initially the orthogonalised plane wave parameter is
considered as unity. Thereafter Vashishta–Singwi form of exchange and correlation are employed.
For indium the Clementi eigenvalues being not available, the experimental energy values have been
taken besides the Herman–Skillman core energy eigenvalues. Our results are quite satisfactory for
the metal. For the alloys our results lie within the range of values as obtained by other researchers.
Our computation reveals that the superconducting state parameter can be reasonably reproduced by
Harrison's first principle pseudopotential technique along with McMillan's formalism provided a
proper choice of the core energy eigenvalues is made.
Key words: Superconducting state parameter, Orthogonalised plane wave parameter, Core energy
eigenvalue, Non–local screened form factor, Harrison's first principle

All About Covalent Bonding ! Valence Electrons
All About Covalent Bonding! Valence Electrons All About Ionic Bonding!
 Covalent bonding is when electrons are shared by atoms, which enables the atoms to gain more
stability.
 Covalent bonding is done between two nonmetal atoms.
 Molecules that are covalently bonded have low melting points because the electrons are being
shared. Plus, they are terrible conductors of electricity, because the molecule is made up of
nonmetals.
 Covalent bonds can have three types of bonds, a single bond. A double bond, and a triple bond.
 Gilbert N. Lewis created an illustration called the "Lewis dot structure" which portrayed covalent
bonds.  ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By sharing these valence electrons, it creates a full electron shell. o Demonstration: H2O, the water
molecule is the perfect example of how covalent bonding uses valence electrons to create a full
electron shell. Oxygen has six electrons on the energy level 2p. For that energy level to be full, it
can have two more electrons. Therefore, two hydrogens bond with that one oxygen, to ensure its
stability. Hydrogen bonds with the oxygen because in order for hydrogen's outermost shell (1s) to be
filled, it needs one electron to be shared with it. So, oxygen shares one electron with each of the two
hydrogens, and the two hydrogens hare its one electron with the one oxygen.
 Atoms that use ionic bonding transfer valence electrons. Metals give nonmetals electrons, which
make the metals positively charged, which is called a cation. Nonmetals receive electrons from
metals which make the nonmetals negatively charged which is called an

Electron Element
The electron arrangement of an atom represents the particular orbitals in which are occupied by
electrons in an atom. The relationship between the electron arrangement of elements and their
position in the periodic table rely on an element's period, in which corresponds to the element's
highest occupied energy level. This is due to periodic properties, this basically means that the
elements properties are predictable based on their position within the periodic table. The periodic
table is a result of the periodic law, this law was based upon observations made on the elements
recurring properties and which elements have similar properties. The theorem in which explains this
law is the quantum mechanical theory.
When moving across each period, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The atomic radius is the measure of size of its atoms, usually the mean or average distance from the
center of the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding cloud of electrons. Ionization Energy is the
energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion. The first or initial ionization
energy of a molecule is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of
isolated gaseous atoms or ions. . Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract
a bonding pair of electrons. The physical properties include color, melting point, and freezing point.
These properties all relates to electron configuration due to the element's valence shells. For
example, noble gasses tend to be stable because the valence shell is full, and halogens tend to react
quickly because one electron is absent meaning they can't have a full valence octet. Metals are found
on the left hand side of the periodic table, they are good conductors, have a high melting point, and a
large atomic radius. Nonmetals are located on the right hand side of the periodic table; they have
high ionization energy and electronegativity.
In conclusion, the relationship between the electron arrangement of elements and their position on
the periodic table have two attributes in which include The number of occupied shells is the same as
the period number. As well as, the number of electrons in the outer shell is equivalent to the group

Electron Acoustic Waves Essay
Among the modes which propagate in a plasma, Fried and Gould (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) 1 (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) introduced the novel
concept of the electron–acoustic (EA) mode during numerical solutions of the linear electrostatic
Vlasov dispersion equation in an unmagnetized, homogenous plasma. Electron acoustic waves
(EAWs) are high frequency electrostatic waves in comparison with the ion plasma frequency. These
waves can exist in two temperature electron plasmas with cold and hot electrons in the presence of a
steady background of ions which guarantee the overall neutrality condition. (–– removed HTML ––)
(–– removed HTML ––) 2,3 (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) EA modes travel at a
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 18 (–– removed HTML
––) (–– removed HTML ––) The propagation of EAWs has received much attention not only
because the two–electron–temperature plasma is very common in laboratory experiments and in
space, but also because of the potential importance of EAWs in interpreting the electrostatic
component of the broadband electrostatic noise (BEN) observed in the cusp of the terrestrial
magnetosphere, (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 19,20 (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) in the geomagnetic tail, (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 21
(–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) in the auroral region, (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) 22 (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) etc. (–– removed HTML
––) (–– removed HTML ––) Nowadays, quantum plasmas have attracted a great deal of attention
because of their novelty as well as their applications to a variety of physical systems such as
quantum wells, (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 23 (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) semiconductors, (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 24 (––
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plasmas, (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 26 (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed
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What Is The Unequal Sharing Of Electrons In Nuclear Molecules
Chapter 2: The Chemistry and Energy of Life
Concept 2.1
What is the arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom? An equal amount of protons
and neutrons are placed together in the center of the atom. The nucleus contains the protons and
neutrons. Electrons are surrounded on the outside rings of the atom.
According to the octet rule, what would be the simplest way for a sodium atom to achieve electron
stability? A sodium atom only has one valence electron. So, the best way to achieve electron
stability is to bond with a halogen ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Explain why or why not. Generally, the neutron determines its chemical stability, although in the
case of deuterium the isotope remains stable. This is because there is insignificant mass difference
between protons and neutrons.
Concept 2.2
How do differences in electronegativity result in the unequal sharing of electrons in polar
molecules? A molecule containing an atom with high electronegativity will be more polar than a
molecule containing an atom with a lower electronegativity. The higher the electronegativity the
more insatiable the atom becomes when it comes to sharing.
For each of the following, is it a Hydrogen bond donor, acceptor, both, or neither? Aldehyde is a
hydrogen bond acceptor. Amino is a hydrogen bond acceptor and donor. Hydroxyl is both a
hydrogen bond donor and acceptor.
What are the functional groups on this molecule? What is the R group to which they are attached? Is
the R group hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

How Much Charge Electron?
In 1913, Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher discovered how much charge electrons have by using
their oil drop experiment. Before their experiment, J.J. Thompson did an experiment that discovered
electrons and their negative charge, but what he never found out how much negative charge
electrons have. What scientists wanted to know was exactly how much much charge each electron
has. Robert Millikan and Henry Fletcher had to be very clever to pull off this experiment effectively
because they couldn't just take out an electron from an atom and measure its charge. They figured
out a way to do this experiment by using tiny drops of oil and balanced them floating in mid air
using electricity and gravity. Using thus technique, they were able to

The Spin Of The Electron Essay
The spin of the electron is an intrinsic angular momentum that is separate from the angular
momentum due to its orbital motion. The magnitude of the projection of the electron 's spin along an
arbitrary axis is, implying that the electron acts as a
Fermion by the spinstatistics theorem. Like orbital angular momentum, the spin has an associated
magnetic moment, the magnitude of which is expressed as.
 
3 q

2 m ( e )
In a solid the spins of many electrons can act together to affect the magnetic and electronic
properties of a material, for example endowing it with a permanent magnetic moment as in a
ferromagnet.
In many materials, electron spins are equally present in both the up and the down state, and no
transport properties are dependent on spin. A spintronic device requires generation or manipulation
of a spinpolarized population of electrons, resulting in an excess of spin up or spin down electrons.
The polarization of any spin dependent property X can be written as.
P ( X ) 
X   X 
X   X 
A net spin polarization can be achieved either through creating an equilibrium energy split between
spin up and spin down. Methods include putting a material in a large magnetic field (Zeeman
effect), the exchange energy present in a ferromagnet or forcing the system out of equilibrium. The
period of time that sucha nonequilibrium population can be maintained is known as the spin
lifetime.
In a diffusive conductor, a spin diffusion length can be defined as the distance over

How Anions Take Electrons
Cations take electrons so they are shown as a rectangle with an indent which symbolizes a slot for
an electron to be taken. If they require multiple electrons to be given to them, they are shown as a
rectangle with multiple indents, one for each needed electron. Anions give electrons so they are
shown as a rectangle with a tab which symbolizes an extra electron that they want to give away. If
the anion have multiple electrons to give away it is shown as a rectangle with multiple tabs on it,
one for each electron to give away. The tabs from the anions would fit into the indent of the cations
and it would form a rectangle with no tabs or indents as they have no more electrons to giveaway
and does not have the need to take any more. If there are tabs on the piece of paper, it must be a
cation (giving off a negative charge). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The positive charge from the anions matches the negative charge of the cations. This caused the
charge to become neutral, having no negative charge and no positive charge. This relates to the
chemical formula because for example if a cation has a negative charge of two, it either needs an
anion with a positive charge of two or, two anions with a positive charge of one. Cation's do not
change names from the original element while occasionally having a roman numeral in parentheses
to signify the higher oxidation number. Anions include the "ide" suffix. Not all metals have the
roman numeral in

James Shrodinger What Is The Electron Really
The electron, as we know it, is diagrams and symbols all of which are models. Scientists attempt to
understand the electron's components, shape, movement, etcetera, but the reality shines through. No
one knows. There are approximations and theories but no "set–in–stone" criteria. In the article, What
Is The Electron, Really?, the electron fundamentals make sense but are not necessarily true. What Is
The Electron, Really? was written by James J. Morwick at Oakwood Collegiate Institute. In the
writing, he begins by discussing Schrodinger's belief that the electron was a wave. Schrodinger
conjured this when he established a model of a nucleus, that of which repulsed the electron causing
it to move wave–like. Schrodinger also revealed that confined

What Is The Measurement Of The Electron Anti-Neutrino?
chapter{Event Selection}label{Ch:BDTSelection}
The measurement of the intrinsic electron anti–neutrino ($overline{nu}_e$) component in the
muon anti–neutrino $overline{nu}_{mu}$ T2K beam is crucial for the oscillation analysis, as it
represents the largest irreducible background for the ($overline{nu}_{mu} rightarrow
overline{nu}_e $) appearance measurement at Super–Kamiokande.
Furthermore, the near detector number of $overline{nu}_e$ events $text{N}_{text{ND}}$ is
used to constrain the flux $phi$(E) times cross–section $sigma$(E) given detector efficiency
$epsilon$(E), as described in~cref{sec:ImpactXsecOsc}.
The $overline{nu}_e$ event selection will be summarized in this chapter. This work is based ...
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subsection{TPC Number of Tracks Cut}label{subsec:nbTracksTPC}
The selected event must have at least one TPC segment, as the track's momentum and charge are
measured using the TPC.
subsection{TPC Quality Cut}
The TPC segment should consist of at least 18 hits if the track had an ECAL segment, and 36 hits
otherwise.
The number of hits in the TPC segment balances the TPC performance with its systematic
uncertainties, and was chosen based on previously done studies~cite{NueSel}.
subsection{Momentum Cut}
As mentioned in~cref{sec:SigDef}, one of the major background is the electron coming from
gammas. The low momentum region of the phase space is highly contaminated with these electrons.
hence, a momentum cut was introduced, as shown in~cref{fig:EvtSel_MomCut}.
begin{figure}[H]
centering
includegraphics[scale = 0.25]{./Include/EvtSel_MomCut.png}
caption{Introduced momentum cut to reduce the gamma background contamination. {color{red}
reproduce with MC only at this stage.}} label{fig:EvtSel_MomCut}
end{figure}
subsection{BDT Cut}
The BDT works as an optimized cut in a multi–dimensional feature space, and uses the correlation
between different features to improve the separation power between signal and background.
First, it calculates the test statistic (tBDT) for each track then checks if it is higher than a certain
value (tBDT_cut), it will be considered as a

Electron Energy Levels
Atomic Emission Spectra and Electron Energy Levels The electromagnetic spectrum is the entirety
of the wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, extending from high energy gamma rays to the low
energy radio waves, and in the middle lies visible light. Visible light of course being the light that
the human eye can see. When white light is run through a prism, it becomes broken up into different
light spectrums, but visible light can also be emitted from different elements such as when you burn
them. By applying heat, the electrons of an element become excited and they rise to a higher energy
orbital and when the electrons fall back into a ground state, electromagnetic radiation–or light–is
emitted. These frequencies of light that can be emitted by an atom is called the atomic emission
spectra. Atoms are the simplest whole unit of matter and consist of a positively charged nucleus that
is surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The electrons of an ... Show more content on
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Different wavelengths will be emitted as an electron returns to ground state based on its transition.
The higher energy the electron falls from the higher energy the wavelength will be. This as stated is
known as the atomic emission spectra, and each atomic emission spectra is unique to the specific
element and acts as a sort of fingerprint. A spectrum categorizes wavelengths based upon the
respective energy ;levels. The highest energy or shorter wavelengths are on the left while the right
holds the lowest energy or longest wavelengths. Based on this, the energy difference of an electrons
fall from excited to ground is what determines the wavelength of light. A fall from the outermost
shell to the innermost would result in an emission of high energy wavelength such as gamma or uv
rays, while a relatively low fall will result in low energy wavelengths such as radio waves. The
emission spectra helps identify

The Physics Of The Hynamical Evolution Of Electron...
In the present paper, we considered the dynamical evolution of protons and electrons in response to
parallel electron firehose instability excitation. Even though the free energy source for the instability
is provided by excessive electron temperature anisotropy, because of the fact that unstable modes
operate in low frequency range, the protons respond to the instability excitation as well. Kinetic
instabilities driven by electron and proton temperature anisotropies, of which the present electron
firehose instability is a part, are known to play significant roles in regulating the temperature
anisotropy upper bound as the solar wind expands out into the interplanetary space from its solar
source. In the present paper, we employed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The proton behavior, on the other hand, exhibited somewhat poorer agreement. The wave intensity
calculation showed a qualitatively good agreement especially for early times, but depending on the
input parameters, quasilinear theory may predict lower or higher saturation intensity. We also
discussed possible cause(s) of various discrepancies, but in an overall sense, we conclude that the
so–called macroscopic quasilinear method maybe a useful first–order tool, but with obvious caveats.
In particular, it was shown that the parallel proton firehose instability leads to the formation of
parallel proton tail, which the simple bi–Maxwellian model cannot explain. (–– removed HTML ––)
(–– removed HTML ––) Before we conclude the present paper, we reiterate that the obliquely
propagating electron firehose mode is known to possess much higher growth rate than the strictly
parallel counterpart. Linear theory of parallel and oblique firehose modes have been carried out in
the literature, (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 24–34 (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) and simulations of these unstable modes have also been carried out in the
literature. (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 35–38 (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) In this regard, one may question the value of the present work. However, we
should point out that simulations are strictly speaking, numerical experiments, which must be
interpreted in terms of and

Hydrogen: Determining The Ground-States Electron
The elements are positioned on the periodic table based on their atomic number. Atomic number, or
the number of protons in the nucleus, is what distinguishes each element on the chart. In the original
design of the periodic table, elements were organized based on their atomic mass, however it was
later discovered that placing the elements based on atomic number made more sense, as it created a
pattern and allowed it to be known what elements are yet to be discovered. Generally, however, the
atomic mass increases with the atomic number. Hydrogen is probably the most simple example.
Hydrogen (H) has only one proton in its nucleus, so it's atomic number is one. Therefore, it is the
very first element on the periodic chart. Because the elements ... Show more content on
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The atoms of each element possess a unique electron configuration because of the fact that different
elements have different numbers of electrons. The ground state electron configuration shows both
the lowest and most stable position for each element. There are three basic rules used for
determining the ground–state electron configurations. The first rule is used to show the order that
the electrons occupy orbitals. Aufbau principle states that an electron has to fill the lowest energy
level/orbital that is available. Therefore, each electron has to try to get as close to the nucleus as it
can. The orbital with the lowest energy is the 1s orbital. So, in the ground state of a hydrogen atom,
the electron would be in this orbital. The energy levels are based on the position of the element on
the periodic chart. Overlapping of the energies of the sublevels can begin to occur in the main
energy level, or n=3. Rule number two demonstrates the spin–number's importance. Pauli's
exclusion principle states that no two electrons (in the same atom) can be represented by the same
four quantum numbers. So, according to this principle, an orbital can hold two electrons of opposite
spin states. Each electron has to have a different electron configuration drawing. The spin number is
very useful in helping to distinguish between electrons that have been paired with one

The Study Of Nonlinear Electron-Acoustic ( EA ) Wave...
The study of nonlinear electron–acoustic (EA) wave propagation is one of the predominant research
areas in space plasma environments. The concept of EA waves was developed by Fried and Gould
(–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 1 (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML
––) for the first time in an unmagnetized plasma, and they observed that electron plasma oscillations
can appear in a continuous formulation without correlation in the presence of collective effects,
making the physics non–trivial. The authors (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 1 (––
removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) noticed that beyond the well–known Langmuir and
ion–acoustic (IA) waves, there was a heavily damped acoustic–like wave solution, which was ...
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(–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 5 (–– removed HTML
––) (–– removed HTML ––) studied the nonlinear propagation of EA waves in an unmagnetized
plasma with hot Maxwellian electrons and fluid cold and beam electrons and ions and compared
their results with the spiky structures of the broadband electrostatic noise due to nonlinear EA waves
observed in the aurora1 region of the Earth's magnetosphere. Schriver and Ashour–Abdalla (––
removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 6 (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––)
showed that the electron acoustic instability and electron ion instability can be combined to form a
broadbanded wave spectrum that rapidly destroys the electron beam. Pottelett (–– removed HTML
––) et al. (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 7 (–– removed
HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) observed large amplitude solitary waves at edges of the AKR
source region, characterized by the presence of two electron populations with a dominant hot
component and a minority cold component. Dubouloz (–– removed HTML ––) et al. (–– removed
HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) (–– removed HTML ––) 8 (–– removed HTML ––) (––
removed HTML ––) presented that the great number of bursts of broadband electrostatic noise
recorded during crossings of the dayside auroral zone by the Viking satellite enables their statistical
study. The characteristics of the electrostatic turbulence produced by a gas of electron

Essay On Electron Microscopy
In the last decade, the development of Ultrafast Electron Diffraction (UED) and Microscopy (UEM)
have enabled the imaging of atomic motion in real time and space. These pivotal table–top tools
opened the door for a vast range of applications in different areas of science spanning chemistry,
physics, materials science, and biology.
The temporal resolution in UEM mainly depends on the duration of the electron pulse, which is
finite due to the initial energy dispersion and the space–charge effect. In UEM, the typical temporal
resolution spans several hundreds of femtoseconds to a few tens of picoseconds, which is
insufficient to resolve the faster transient dynamics of matter lasting few tens to few hundreds of
femtoseconds. Hence, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since the "gating" pulse duration is much shorter, the cross–correlation directly reflects the electron
pulse temporal profile. This is considered to be a simple technique in electron pulse metrology. The
retrieved pulse duration of these "original" electron pulses is in the order of 500 fs. Second, for
generating the isolated ultrashort "gated" electron pulse with maximum counts, the "gating" pulse is
kept at the optimum temporal overlap (τVis=0 fs) with the (500 fs) electron pulse. Finally, the gated
electron pulse, having the same temporal profile as the gating pulse, is characterized by utilizing
another laser pulse and measuring its cross–correlation temporal profile with the gated electrons.
The cross–correlation spectrogram was recorded. Then, the temporal profile of this cross–correlation
was retrieved from the spectrogram, which carries the signature of the coupling between the original
electron pulse and NIR laser pulse and that between the gated electron pulse and NIR laser pulse.
The cross–correlation temporal profile of the last one shows an FWHM in the order of 50 fs. Since
the NIR pulse duration is 33fs. Therefore, the gated electron pulse duration is in the order of 30 fs,
similar to the gating pulse temporal profile. The generated 30fs electron pulse has sufficient electron
counts for probing the ultrafast electron dynamics of matter. The attained

Electron Affinity Essay
Electron Affinity, by textbook definition it's the energy absorbed or released when an electron is
added to a neutral atom. (Ryerson, 2011, 35) Electron affinity is used in many cases First electron
affinity in bromine–35, has –324 kJ mol–1, or –5.39. These values show us, that Bromine released
energy, and became stable. Bromine would have had an exothermic reaction when the electron was
added to the valence shell. This is because, when non–metals gain electrons, the delta energy is
negative because they release energy to form an anion (exothermic process); thus, the electron
affinity will be negative (Harwood, 2016). There are 28 shielding electrons in Bromine which mean
that there more electron–electron repulsion in Bromine than attraction within the nucleus. Moreover,
Bromine only needs one more electron to become stable in its valence shell, since it is in the non–
metal group, it already has 7 electrons in its valence shell, and so that one electron would stabilize
this element. Overall first electron affinity in Bromine would benefit the element in which it would
stabilize and also allow energy to be released. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lithium is a metal, so it would've had an endothermic reaction, and gained energy to perform
electron affinity. This would be because, in a metal element, when an electron is added to the
valence shell it would make an endothermic reaction so energy is needed to sustain that electron.
(Harwood, 2016) Furthermore, there are only 2 shielding electrons in Lithium, this would mean
Lithium would have a very high attraction between its nucleus and electron, which highlights the
fact that it would need more energy to keep that nucleus from attracting the new electron. (Jones,
2014) Nevertheless, Lithium is an element which

Charge to Mass Ratio of the Electron Essay
Charge to Mass Ratio of the Electron
Thomas Markovich and John Mazzou
Departments of Physics University of Houston Houston, TX 77204–5006 (Dated: September 23,
2010) We sought to reproduce the experiment first preformed by KT Bainbridge to determine the
charge to mass ratio of the electron. In this paper, we derived the relationship between this ratio and
measurable quantities, detailed our experimental setup, with in depth and specific circuit diagrams.
We determined the mass to charge ratio to be 6.54341±.00474661e7[Cg − 1] with a percent
difference of 63%. Because of the large error, we explore possible sources of error.
I.
INTRODUCTION
a perfect circle. Thus: m v2 = qvB r (II.3)
The ratio of the mass of an electron to its ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(II.14)
And finally, we calculate the total uncertainty in our single mean value which is given by the
equation below. δ ¯ Vi 2 r2 I = 1
5 j=1 1
2
σm =
(xi − x) . ¯ i=1 (II.8)
(II.15)
V I 2 r2 j j
V The next task is to calculate I 2 and the associated uncertainties. We obtained this mean value by
calculating the weighted mean. From the equation below n i=1 n i=1 wi 2 σi 1 2 σi V I2 ,
δ

III.
METHOD
wl = ¯
(II.9) we get
we have that for our weighted average of
5 i=1 Vi
2 Ii,j δ Vi I2 i,j 2
¯ V I2
= j 5 i=1
1 δ
Vi I2 i,j 2
.
(II.10)
Where the index i will be used to represent different accelerating potentials and j will represent the
different pegs. However, from Equation (II.10), we can see that we need to calculate the uncertainty
in IVi which we have pre2 i,j sented below δ Vi Ii,j = δV 2 Ii,j
2
+
2Vi δIi,j 3 Ii,j
2
.
(II.11)
We then seek the uncertainty in Equation (II.10) and find that δ ¯ Vi I2 = 1
5 i=1 1 δ
Vi I2 i,j 2
The experiment we preformed required that we produce an electron beam that would then be
deflected by the magnetic field produced by the Helmholtz coils. To do so, we used an exciting
filament: a cylindrical carbon anode surrounding a tungsten filament placed inside an evacuated

glass chamber. The glass chamber contains trace amounts of vapor phase mercury in a near vacuum.
Thus, excited electrons will

Why Does The Final Electron Energy Not Depend On The...
1. Why does the final electron energy not depend on the focusing cylinder voltage?
– The final electron energy does not depend on the focusing cylinder voltage because it applies a
force that is parallel to the magnetic field rather than perpendicular to it.
2. Do you think the electrons are emitted from the cathode with zero velocity, one velocity, or a
range of velocities? Hint: The electrons inside the metal that are able to escape are a bit like a gas of
molecules at finite temperature.
– I think that the electrons that are emitted from the cathode are emitted with a range of velocities
(perhaps like a Boltzmann distribution where average speed clusters in the middle of the range).
3. The coils are connected in series. Why would connecting them in parallel be a bad idea? ... Show
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To get the electrons to move at the same speed, we would have to turn up the voltage and this would
overheat the expensive apparatus' filament.
4. Why doesn't the magnetic field change the speed of the electrons? (Speed is taken to be the
magnitude of the velocity. The velocity is a vector.)
– The magnetic field does not change the speed of the electrons. Since the magnetic field is always
perpendicular to the velocity, only the electron movement direction changes and not the speed.
5. At a coil current of 3 A, what is the magnetic field produced at the center of the Helmoltz coils in
gauss? About what is the magnitude of the Earth's field in gauss? At coil current 3 A=
B=((9.0 x 10–7 )(124)(3)/(0.15))= 0.00223 T= 22.3

Electron Distribution Using Peas Lab
The labs I chose were Electron Distribution using Peas, Mendeleev for a Day, and Flame Tests. I
chose these labs because they helped me realize how electrons work and why the periodic table is
set up the way it is. It also helped me see how electrons work in the atoms of the periodic table. The
Electron Distribution using Peas lab helped me understand how the electrons are placed in levels
based on their energy. For this lab, we had to make a target and put peas into a funnel. After that, we
let the peas go and saw what happened. The peas represented the electrons and the parts of the target
were the different energy levels of an atom. The levels allow the electrons to keep moving up once
they are full. After this is known, then we can put that information into an electron configuration.
There is not an exact path as to where the electrons are supposed to go, so where the peas landed
showed us the different regions of high and low density. Also in this lab, the quantum mechanical
model shows that there is not a set spot as to how the electrons are going to go. ... Show more
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Mendeleev knew that there would be elements that would fill the entire table, but they were not yet
discovered, so he left their spots blank. He organized the table by their increasing atomic mass. In
this lab, our job was to mix unknown solutions with known solutions and record what happened
once they were mixed. Once we completed our objectives for the lab, we were to group the solutions
with similar characteristics like Mendeleev did when he was organizing his table. Unlike
Mendeleev, we did not group ours with atomic mass. The periodic table tells us what the atomic
mass of an atom is. The periodic table is shaped the way it is because of its properties of the
elements. Mendeleev predicted what the properties were, whereas, we saw the changes and grouped
by that. (What is the Periodic

Disadvantages Of Electron Microscopy
SEM – Scanning Electron Microscopy
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is one of the most versatile instruments available for the
examination and analysis of the microstructure morphology and chemical composition
characterizations. It is necessary to know the basic principles of light optics in order to understand
the fundamentals of electron microscopy. Light microscopy has been, and continues to be, of great
importance to scientific research. Since the discovery that electrons can be deflected by the
magnetic field in numerous experiments in the 1890s [1], electron microscopy has been developed
by replacing the light source with high energy electron beam. The radius of Airy disk is defined as
the distance between the first–order peak ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition to those signals that are utilized to form an image, a number of other signals are
produced when an electron beam strikes a sample, including the emission of characteristic x–rays,
Auger electrons, and cathodoluminescence
3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of SEM
In part, it is true that Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) present a many advantages, the more
important are: (i) higher resolution of visualization microbial biofilms (Walker et al.,
2001) than other imaging techniques, typically 3.5 nm, (ii) able to measure and quantify data in
three dimensions. However, this technique utilizes graded solvents (alcohol, acetone, and xylene) to
gradually dehydrate the specimen prior to examination, since water of hydration is not compatible
with the vacuum used with the electron beam. While any pretreatment can alter specimen
morphology, drying appears to significantly alter biofilms due to EPS polymers collapsing (Fassel &
Edmiston, 1999; Little et al., 1991). The dehydration process results in significant sample distortion
and artifacts; the extracellular polymeric substances, which are approximately 95% water and the
liquid loss led them to appear more like

Atoms: Three Parts, Protons, Neutrons, And Electron
Atoms are made of three parts, protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons are pieces of matter that is
positively charged (+1). Electrons are really small, smaller than protons, piece of matter with a
negative charge(–1). Neutrons are pieces of matter around the same size as protons with no
charge(0). Atoms are usually surrounded by electrons. When the electron and protons are at the
same amount the net charge is zero. When the number of electrons and protons are not equal it
causes the atoms to be ionized. These atoms are called ions. More electrons over protons are
negatively charged. More protons over electrons are positive charged. The total charge would be the
sum of the positive protons and negative electrons. The number of protons defines ... Show more
Like "helium–three" would be used for a helium atom that has three nucleons. We write the number
of nucleons to the upper left of the abbreviation such as this one: 3He. We write the charge on an
element or electron to the upper right of the abbreviation such as this one: E–. Hydrogen has three
isotopes: normal Hydrogen is 1H, with not anymore than one proton. Deuterium is 2H, which has
just one proton and a neutron. Tritium is 3H, which has one proton and two neutrons. Tritium is
unstable. It is radioactive, spitting out a fast electron as it disintegrates into helium like this example:
3H ––––––> 3He + e–. A balanced equation has the same "net" charge and mass on the left side as it
has on the right side. Everything is the same on the two sides, just arranged differently. There are
three types of radiation: alpha particles are high speed helium nuclei (4He+2) which can only be
stopped by a piece of paper or skin. Beta particles are high speed electrons (e–) which can pass
through paper, but not to much paper though like a book. Gamma rays are not particles at all. They
are very high energy light rays that can only be stopped by very thick and big materials such as
Hevesy bricks. Radiation can harm you if you get hit by too much of it, so watch out! So lastly there
is many ways to find the atomic mass, on how they describe elements and different parts there are is
in them. Protons, electrons and neutrons,

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Electron Microscope
INTRODUCTION
Electron microscopes are generally microscopes that use electrons as a source of illumination to
create an image, unlike light microscopes that relays on light. One of these types of microscopes is
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), This microscope uses electrons to scan the surface of a
sample giving an observer a highly magnified image of the sample. The electron microscope has
been an amazing tool for research purposes around the world for many decades and the technique
was discovered and developed throughout the years.
A SEM consist of a column that is situated at the top which generates an electron beam, and at the
bottom there is a sample stage, a thermionic cathode in the column is heated up by an electric
current and emit electrons into the vacuum and below it is an anode connected to a ... Show more
Another limitation to this technique is that it's expensive to buy and to maintain.
SEM is limited to solid samples so all the liquids and gaseous materials cannot be viewed under this
microscope, also samples that cannot withstand vacuum pressures cannot be viewed under this
equipment. Since the scanning electron microscope is more focused on the surface it cannot
accurately give information about the bulk at once. For samples that are not metallic like biological
samples like tissues and cells coating is necessary since they are not electrically conductive, this
becomes a limitation because a living cell cannot be viewed since coating would kill it so these are
some of the

Charge Of Mass Ratio Of The Electron
Charge to Mass Ratio of the Electron
Cait McCormick
28 November 2016
PHYSICS 1750 – 01A
Professor Hoogewerff
Objective:
The objective of this lab was to find the ratio of charge to mass of an electron.
Background/ Motivation: The purpose of this lab was to find the ratio of charge to mass of an
electron. The charge to mass ratio of the electron is measured by accelerating electrons through a
uniform magnetic field with a constant potential difference. The electron moves in the magnetic
field and the equation for force of this electron moving can be manipulated to find e/m .
Theory:
For this lab, the charge to mass ratio of an electron was calculated by shooting an electron into a
uniform magnetic field causing the electron to accelerate radially inwards. This causes the electron
to feel a centripetal force, which can be calculated using the equation below, eB= (mv^2)/r
The centripetal force should be equivalent to the magnetic force, shown in the equation below,
F_B=q( v ⃗ × B ⃗)
Using this equivalence as well as the conservation of energy, it was possible to solve for the charge
to mass ratio. The magnetic force causes the electrons to move in a circular path which allows us to
model the force as a centripetal force. The electron beam speed, velocity, is created by the
acceleration voltage, Va, this is found by the following equation, eV_a= 1/2 mv^2
Setting both the centripetal force equation and speed equation equal to each other, we

Atomic Structure: A Positively Charged Electron
Atomic Structure
All atoms are made up of three microscopic components; a positively charged proton, a neutral
neutron, and a negatively charged electron. The proton and neutron make up the nucleus (the center)
which makes up the entire mass of the atom. The number of protons determines the atomic
properties and the atomic number of the element. Protons also determine electron affinity; the atoms
size depends on how attracted the electrons are to the protons. The electron(s) orbit around the
nucleus; they orbit so fast that they create an electron cloud. Outer electrons are further away from
the nucleus because electrons in lower orbital shells shield the positive pull. Additionally, electrons
are curial in bonding. Chemical Bonds
There ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In a water molecule, for example, oxygen is more electronegative so the electrons orbit around the
oxygen more than the hydrogens. In nonpolar molecules, the electrons orbit each atom equally. Ionic
bonds are formed from an anion and a cation. The electrons are not shared. The metal readily gives
up its electron and the nonmetal readily accepts the electron. Examples of ionic bonds are within
salts. In biology, hydrogen bonds are very weak, like in DNA, but from a chemical stand point, they
are strong. Conversely, many hydrogen bonds can be very strong. Hydrogen bonds are only created
with a hydrogen attached to a nitrogen, oxygen, and/or fluorine atom.
Chemical reactions Chemical reactions are simply at least two molecules reacting together to form a
new molecule (products). In chemical reactions, bonds are broken and formed. An example of a
physical change would be the bumper of my Ford Ranger rusting compared to a physical change
which would be water boiling or freezing. For the most part, chemical changes cannot be reversed
whereas physical changes can. Examples of chemical reactions in regards to molecular biology
include cellular respiration and

Iodine Electron Acceleration
Iodine is a member of the halogens group meaning it has seven valence electrons. Valence electrons
are electrons in the outermost shell of an electron orbital. The reason why all of the halogens on the
periodic table have a valence of seven is due to their electron configuration, specifically in the S and
P orbitals. Iodine has an electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p5,
the noble gas configuration is [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5. This results in iodine having the quantum numbers
of n= 5 due to it being in the fifth energy level, and a sub–shell number of L= 1 due to the last
electron of iodine being found in the p orbital. Iodine also has a very high electron affinity that
relates to its electron configuration. Since

Scanning Electron Microscopy And Microscopy
1. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Scanning electron microscopy uses a focused beam of electrons to develop an image of the surface.
Signal is generated by the interaction of electrons with the surface, which are then detected and
perceived to obtain image and desired information related to the characteristics and topography.
1.1. WHY SEM USES ELECTRONS?
The resolution power of an eye is about 0.2 mm. However, utilizing a microscope magnify this
resolution power. The modern light microscope has a magnifying power of 1000x. The wavelength
of the light used can alter the resolving power of the microscope. Visible light as compared to an
electronic beam can focus the minute details of the surface. The signals that are derived from
electron ample interaction displays information about the physico chemical structure, crystalline
morphology and orientation of the arrays of molecules that make up the sample. A dimensional
image is generated showing spatial changes in properties (1) .
Areas of around 1 to 5 microns can be imaged by using conventional SEM techniques with a
magnifying range from 20x to 30,000x. SEM precision to view can be analyzed by keeping in view
a fact that it is cable of analyzing a particular sample point. This methodology can be employed for
quantitative determination. SEM is advantageous over traditional microscopic technique. SEM has
more deep investigational details as compared to the conventional characterization techniques. SEM
has much higher resolution

Electron Affinity And Ionization Energy

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