Marathon Energy System

Marathon Energy System
Hayley Berg, EDH2253 Assignment 2 Presentation. Energy systems in a 100 metre sprint versus a
marathon.
Energy Systems
Abernathy (2013), "an individuals exercise capacity is determined by how much energy the muscle
cell can produce and how quickly this energy can be made available to the contractile elements in
skeletal muscle."
Energy/adenosine triphosphate (ATP) can be metabolised from various forms of carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins (Brown, 2012).
Brown (2012), "carbohydrates and fat are the primary sources of energy, with protein contributing a
minimal amount under normal conditions."
ATP is the only usable energy.
Three energy systems replenish ATP; phosphagen system; anaerobic glycolysis system; aerobic
oxidative ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Several procedures exist for testing anaerobic capacity– most common Wingate anaerobic test.
During increasing intensity, volume oxygen continues to increase until a maximal value (VO2 max),
the maximal aerobic capacity is reached.
A VO2max test involves a graded exercise test on a treadmill/bike. Beep test which is a series of
stages.
Changes to energy systems with age
Removal of lactic acid in the glycolysis system is largely impacted by blood flow and heart rate.
With age, changes to the body may result in slower heart rate as the heart muscles degenerate
slightly.
Aerobic capacity depends on many factors. E.g. cardiac output, or amount of blood the heart can
pump.
Aerobic capacity is also related to an individual's lung capacity and amount of oxygen the muscles
can use (Abernethy, 2013).
An individual's maximum aerobic capacity (VO2 max), decreases about 1 percent per year after 25
(Miller, n.d.).
Measurement of aerobic/anaerobic capacity allows evaluation of individual's metabolic abilities,
indicates state of fitness and effectiveness of training programs.
Training to improve the energy

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ATPAnd Cellular Respiration
1–) What does ATP stand for?
ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is a coenzyme that cells use to store energy. Also ATP is
present in all cell's cytoplasm and nucleus as well because it's vital for proper life functions in plants
and animals.
2–) How many ATP molecules are produced by Cellular Respiration and by Fermentation?
By Cellular Respiration there are 38 molecules that can be made per oxidized glucose molecule: 2
from the Krebs cycle, 2 from glycolysis, and an average of 34 from the electron transport system.
On the other hand Fermentation is less efficient when using the energy from glucose , which is only
2 ATP produced per glucose.
3–) Please name the parts of the cell cycle
G1 phase : prepares the cell to go into the

Biology 8.1 Summary
8.1 Key Concepts
Plants use the sun to produce food.
The characteristics of ATP make it exceptionally useful as the basic energy source of all cells.
8.1 Vocab
Autotroph– a plant that is able to make their own food
Heterotroph– a plant evolve its nutritional requirements from complex organic substances.
Adenosine triphosphate is a compound consisting of an adenosine molecule bonded to three
phosphate groups, which is in all living tissue.
8.2 Key Concepts
Photosynthesis uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into high–energy
sugars and oxygen.
In addition to water and carbon dioxide, photosynthesis requires light and chlorophyll.
8.2 Vocab
Photosynthesis– the process by which green plants and some other organisms use ... Show more
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(for example carotene and chlorophyll.)
Chlorophyll– a green pigment, present in all green plants responsible for the absorption of light to
provide energy for photosynthesis.
8.3 Key Concepts
The process of photosynthesis needs light in its reactions as well as the Calvin cycle
The light–dependent reactions produce oxygen gas and convert ADP and NADP+ into energy and
NADHP. The light–dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid.
The Calvin cycle refers to the light–independent reactions in photosynthesis that take place in three
key steps. Although the Calvin Cycle is not directly dependent on light, it is indirectly dependent on
light since the necessary energy carriers (ATP and NADPH) are products of light–dependent
reactions.
8.3 Vocab
Thylakoid– each of a number of flattened sacs inside a chloroplast, bounded by pigmented
membranes on which the light reactions of photosynthesis take place, and arranged in stacks or

grana.
Photosystem– a biochemical mechanism in plants by which chlorophyll absorbs light energy for
photosynthesis.
Stroma– the supportive tissue of an epithelial organ, tumor, gonad, etc., consisting of connective
tissues and blood

BIOCHEM Task Essay
Enzymology and Catalytic Mechanism
Carbohydrate Metabolism, Adenosine Triphosphate
Western Governors University
ENZYMES
Are proteins that act as catalysts, and carry out chemical reactions.
They speed up or slow down reactions, but remain unchanged. (Thinkwell, 2000)
Enzymes bind to a substrate (anything that needs to be changed into something else [molecule,
protein etc.])
Enzymes are important in cellular metabolism.
Enzymes are involved in processes such as the breakdown of carbohydrates and converts them into
energy for the body to use.
Lock and Key Model or Induced Fit Diagram of Enzymatic Activity
Effect of Enzymes on Activation Energy
Breakdown of Fructose
Sucrose is made up of Glucose and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mutations in the ALDOB gene reduce the function of the enzyme, impairing the ability to
metabolize fructose.
The lack of functional aldolase B results in accumulation of fructose–1–phosphate in liver cells.
The buildup is toxic and could result in death of liver cells over time. (Genetics home reference,
2013)
Hereditary Fructose Intolerance (HFI)
The breakdown of DHAP releases a phosphate group from this molecule.
Phosphate groups are used for a number of cell processes, including the production of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy source, and the release of stored sugar in the liver.
(Genetics home reference, 2013)
Lack of functional aldolase B enzyme reduces the amount of DHAP, leading to fewer phosphate
groups available for use in the body; also, without aldolase B, fructose cannot enter the glycolysis
process into which sugar will not be converted into usable energy for cell processes.
The Cori Cycle
If the entire Cori cycle occurred and remained within that single cell, it would be considered a
pointless/useless sequence; with glucose being spent and reproduced at the cost of ATP and GTP
hydrolysis.
With 6 ATPs being consumed and used, but only 2 ATPs being synthesized. 4 ATPs are being wasted

and lost. Less ATP will be produced if the entire Cori cycle occurred and remained within that single
cell.
Simultaneously, cells are forced to metabolize glucose anaerobically, which leads to lactate

Oxidatory Synthesis
Removal of antioxidant enzymes including small–molecule–weight antioxidants depends on cellular
redox environment as it is a delicate process to regulate the two. ROS are responsible to regulate
several physiological actions such as the ability to mediate and relate signal transduction from
membrane receptors, At low concentrations, ROS are involved in regulating several physiological
actions, including their ability to mediate relate signal transduction from membrane receptors, thus
aiding the stimulation of several proteins and enzymes (1,2). Conversely, accumulation of extra
intracellular ROS lead to oxidative stress, in turn will impair cellular membranes, promoting
mitochondrial injury and cell death, which adversely impacting upon cell function and survival 3,5)
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, Oxidative stress can cause injury to the heart which could result in adverse cell and organ
damage as factor– β mitochondria have shown to be the major primary target for this effect [3]. The
presence of ROS in cardiac redox signaling mainly is established from Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases, and are activated by stimuli such as Angiotensin II (Ang
II). However, increase in lipid buildup within the myocardium or cardiac lipotoxicity as a result of
imbalance between fatty acid uptake and oxidation also augment ROS formation [4]. The pathway
to ER stress is a difficult signal transduction, originating from the stimulated ER membrane
activated by perturbation of normal ER metabolism which has vital role to play in lipid synthesis,
folding of protein as well as maturation

Joseph's Story Case Study Answers
Kellee Petross
Joseph's Story
Question B. Since blood flow to Joseph's heart has slowed down greatly so have others things such
as oxygen flow, glucose, and necessary ions. With cells having to work extra hard attempting to get
the body back to homeostasis it is rapidly burning up its supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Carbon dioxide is beginning to build up in the cells, throwing off pH levels because carbon dioxide
is waste that needs to be gotten rid of. The mitochondria in Joseph's cells cannot make more ATP
due to the lack of oxygen and glucose. Since there is no ATP active transport cells cannot work so
the hearts plasma membrane shut down.
Question C.
Question D. The predisposition part means that Joseph inherited vascular disease.

Scie206 Biology Unit 2ip Photosynthesis & Respiration
Carrie Cunnien
SCIE 206 Biology
January 20, 2013
IP 2 Abstract
Some of the things that will be discussed are how photosynthesis and respiration are linked in order
to provide you with energy from the food we eat. The absence of oxygen some cells and organisms
can use glycolysis coupled to fermentation to produce energy to your cells. Cells use enzymes as
biological catalysts to increase or accelerate the rate of reactions. Energy, Metabolism, and Cells
Photosynthesis envelopes everything we need to sustain life whether directly related or indirectly
related. Biology involves a great responsibility for the safety and well–being of all inhabitants of the
earth. Our daily lives and the comprehension of what it takes to keep the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
2004). When energy is extracted from carbohydrates by organisms while there is no oxygen present
is Fermentation, according to (www.sci.uidaho.edu. 2008). Fermentation is generally used in many
ways.
2. In the absence of oxygen some cells and organisms can use glycolysis coupled to fermentation to
produce energy from the sugar created by photosynthesis. A. A number of organisms in the
nonexistence of oxygen from time to time go through a course of action described as fermentation.
Fermentation permits these organisms to create energy under anaerobic conditions according to
(www.sci.uidaho.edu. 2008).
B. In a biological system energy comes into as light or photons. Through cellular methods including
photosynthesis and respiration it is converted into chemical energy. Carbohydrates are developed
throughout the infusion of carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Subsequently energy is stored in ATP
(adenosine triphosphate).
3. Cells use enzymes as biological catalysts to increase or accelerate the rate of reactions, such as
those in photosynthesis or glycolysis. This allows reactions to occur under conditions that sustain
life.
A. Enzymes boost reaction rates by lessening the quality of energy necessary to form a compound of
reactants. Enzymes expedite the chemical reaction in living things. Without them, it would take a
long time for food to be digested and our bones and muscles would not work as well. The most
preferred representation

Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy Disease...
Zarae Allen
Mrs.Willard
Honors Biology
1December 2016
Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy
Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy disease (MNGIE) is an extremely rare disease
that affects the process of muscles and shows up in equal numbers of men and women. Only 70
cases of this disease have been reported. A mutation of the thymidine phosphorylase causes MNGIE
and lowers the production of adenosine triphosphate production. To begin, mitochondrial
neurogastrointestinal encephalopathy disease is related to adenosine triphosphate because it lowers
the production. In a case report on Hindawi called " Anesthetic Management of a Child with
Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy" it states, " These mutations can result in a
decrease in ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation in the respiratory chain found in the
mitochondria, affecting tissues that have high energy demands including cardiac, nervous, and
skeletal muscle tissue." An enzyme called thymidine phosphorylase, mutates affecting how ATP is
made. As a result, it affects the muscle cells of the organism because people with this disorder do
not have enough energy to move their muscles in their body. Also, in Genetic Home Reference that
had the topic of MNGIE, it reads "... the muscles and nerves of the digestive system do not move
food through the digestive tract efficiently. The resulting digestive problems include feelings of
fullness (satiety)

Glycolytic Pathway
Energy needed to function comes from the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP). To keep a continuous supply of ATP, ATP is resynthesized using one of the three
energy pathways. The three energy pathways are the phosphagen, anaerobic and aerobic systems.
The phosphagen system known as the ATP–CP pathway, uses creatine phosphate (CP) to
resynthesize ATP. CP re–bonds ADP to produce ATP after it is broken down. The ATP–CP pathway
is the quickest way to resynthesize ATP and is the predominant energy system used for short–term
high–intensity activities. Two exercises that utilize the ATP–CP pathway are weightlifting and
sprinting.
The anaerobic system known as the glycolytic pathway, uses glucose to produce ATP. Glucose is
broken down into pyruvate through glycolysis to produce ATP. The amount of energy produced is
very little, but you get the energy quickly. The glycolytic pathway is the second fastest way to
resynthesize ATP and is the predominant energy system used for large bursts activities. Two
exercises that utilize the glycolytic pathway are powerlifting such as bench press and deadlift.
The aerobic system known as the oxidative pathway, uses oxygen to produce ATP and is the most
complex of the three energy systems. The oxidative pathway uses blood glucose, glycogen ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The oxidative pathway would be the focal point for training to run a marathon. Activities I would
incorporate into training for a marathon would include arm workouts, core exercises, glute and hip
movements, mobility and stability routines. Arm motion is important for proper posture and balance.
Core exercises are key to push body further and help recover faster. Glute and hip movements
promotes stronger hips, prevents shin splints and increase flexibility. Mobility exercises keeps
strong when going uphill and stability allows recover from uneven

Summary: The Importance Of ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, ATP, is considered by biologists to be the energy currency of all life. ATP
keeps us alive. It is a high–energy molecule that stores the energy we need to do just about
everything. It is present in every cell. Physical mechanisms by the body that require energy mostly
use ATP. ATP is remarkable for its ability to enter into many reactions. They both use food to extract
energy and the reactions in other physiological processes provide energy to the cells by ATP. Our
bodies need energy. Today, many people are involved in many activities and sports. These activities
and sports require plenty of energy. Oxygen supply in our muscles allows us to keep going and that
oxygen supply and muscle empowerment is fueled by ATP. ATP is how our bodies keep going day
after day as we do so many strenuous activities. Without this energy supplied by ATP, we wouldn't
be able to walk, run, talk, or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When a bond is broken, energy is released. When a bond is made, energy is stored. In a process
called cellular respiration, chemical energy in food is converted into chemical energy that the cells
can use and it stores it in molecules of ATP. ATP is made by multiple mitochondria in the body and
this is where ATP is also synthesized. That is why the mitochondria has the name "power house of
the cell" because it is the site for ATP production. Synthesis is the formation of adenosine
triphosphate through the interaction of the ATP synthase enzyme within cellular material. In other
words, this is when a molecule of adenosine diphosphate, ADP, uses the energy released during
cellular respiration to bond with a third phosphate group. It becomes a molecule of ATP. The sodium
potassium pumps in the cell membrane require ATP to break into ADP and the loose phosphate must
bind to the pump. When the cell needs energy, ATP looses a third phosphate group which releases
energy so the cell can actually do

Creatine Research Paper
Creatine (C4H9N3O2) is a non–essential amino acid that occurs primarily in muscle cells. It is a
naturally occurring substance that is found in the pancreas and liver. It is important for the
production and storage of energy in your body. The waste of creatine is called creatinine and is
expelled through urine. Not only is it made in your body, scientists have studied and produced
creatine in labs. The most common and most researched form of creatine is creatine monohydrate.
All studies about creatine have mostly found creatine monohydrate to be the safest with no
additives. Creatine is found in meats like fish and beef. The average person who eats meat gets an
average of one to two grams a day.
The way that creatine works in the body is very astonishing. When the molecule ATP or adenosine
triphosphate is broken down into ADP or adenosine diphosphate and phosphate, energy is released
from the exothermic reaction for our body to have intense movements. The energy that is released is
the decomposition of the single Phosphorus. Creatine synthesizes another phosphorus to turn ADP
back into ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Taking supplemented creatine can result in a higher increase of muscle mass. Studies have shown
that three to five grams of creatine monohydrate orally taken is risk free (EFSA). It increases muscle
mass by providing the user to go longer on their exercise. Supplementing with creatine became
popular in the nineties for a way to get lean muscle mass. Another study shows that creatine causes
water retention in muscles causing mass increase (NCBI). Creatine is also used as a treatment is
muscular dystrophy. For people with muscular dystrophy it improves muscular functionality and
muscle mass in all. It can be used to treat heart failure and mitochondrial disorders. I personally
have been supplementing with creatine monohydrate for the past month and have seen an increase in
strength and muscle

Energy Path Research Paper
The first fitness activity I have participated in is basketball. The energy pathway I have chosen for
this activity is the ATP–CP system. For this, the action of trying dunk the ball into the basket is what
relates to this system the most. The ATP–CP system is one of the three energy pathways. The ATP–
CP system is mostly activated when short and quick bursts of energy are released from the body.
ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate and CP stands for creatine phosphate. CP is used to reactivate
ATP, but this process is quite short–lived. This is why this relates to the fast action of dunking the
basketball into the basket before your competitor gets to it.
The second fitness activity I have participated in is sprinting for a couple of

Cellular Respiration Research Paper
Respiration is very important in providing energy to your body, all living things run on energy.
Energy is provided from different sources, for an example plant life receives its energy source from
the Sun. All other forms of life receive energy through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration
happens in three stages; Glycolysis, The Krebs Cycle, Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.
The cellular respiration process can be aerobic or anaerobic.
In order for the human body to function it requires energy, the body's energy source comes from the
food we eat on a daily bases. We consume carbohydrates, fats, and proteins that our body uses to
convert to energy. The process of converting these foods into a useable source of energy is Cellular
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It breaks down simple sugar or glucose into pyruvates to make energy available to cells. The first
step of the process involves two phosphate groups attaching to one glucose molecule to form a
carbon compound with two phosphate groups. The phosphate groups are converted into molecules
of ADP or Adenosine diphosphate, which is the 'de energized' form of ATP. The carbon compound is
then split into carbon molecules glyceraldehyde 3 phosphates, which are oxidized and each receives
a phosphate group, forming three–carbon compound molecules. The oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3
phosphates reduces molecules, and removes the phosphate groups.
The Krebs cycle is the second stage of aerobic respiration, also known as the tricarboxylic acid
cycle or citric acid cycle. Citric acid is the first product generated by this sequence of chemical
conversions. In animals the mitochondria is the cells "power plant". In plant Chloroplasts are the
"power plant". In microorganisms, the power house can be found in the cell

Stages Of Cellular Respiration In Plants
All of the following compounds are required at some stage of cellular respiration in plants, except
A. NAD.
B. sugar.
C. adenosine diphosphate.
D. oxygen.
E. carbon dioxide.
Cellular respiration occurs in both plant and animal cells. Both types of cells are very similar,
containing similar organelles such as the mitochondria. The mitochondria is the site of cellular
respiration, where glucose and oxygen can be used to produce ATP and carbon dioxide. In plant
cells energy is created through the process of photosynthesis, the conversion of energy from the sun
into chemical energy. Autotrophs are able to utilize photosynthesis to sustain themselves without
consuming food to obtain energy. The site of photosynthesis takes place in the cell's chloroplast
(Citovsky, Lecture 20). A large, concentrated portion of chloroplast can be found within the plant's
mesophyll, the interior of a leaf. Photosynthesis is broken down into two stages: light reactions and
the Calvin cycle. Through light reactions, solar energy can be converted into chemical energy
(Campbell, pg. 189). In the Calvin cycle, usable energy in the form of sugars are synthesized from
carbon dioxide.
Choice A – NAD is incorrect. NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is a coenzyme which
functions as an intermediate for energy transport during cellular respiration (Citovsky, Lecture 18).
In the first phase of photosynthesis, light reactions, solar energy is converted into NADP+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

The Treatment of Wastewater with Microalgae Essay
2.1 Wastewater Treatment with Microalgae
Microalgae have a great potential to solve energy and environmental challenges around the world.
Wastewater treatment with microalgae is a more environmental sound approach to reduce nitrogen
and phosphorus and to remove heavy metals from wastewater. Microalgae can absorb significant
amount of nutrients because they need large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus for proteins (45–
60% microalgae dry weight) and metals as micronutrients for their growth. William Oswald first
developed the idea of treating wastewater using microalgae and performed photosynthesis in sewage
treatment [29]. Figure 2.1 briefly depicts the process involved in high rate algal pond in which algae
plays a dual role by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2.2.1 Nitrogen
Organic nitrogen is the key element in biological substances like enzymes, peptides, proteins,
chlorophylls and energy transfer molecules such as ADP (Adenosine diphosphate) and ATP
(Adenosine–5'–triphosphate) [33]. Organic nitrogen is derived from inorganic sources including
nitrite (NO2–), nitrate (NO3–), nitric acid (HNO3), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4+), and
nitrogen gas (N2). Microalgae has an ability to convert inorganic nitrogen be only in the forms of
nitrite, nitrate and ammonium to organic nitrogen through a process called assimilation. Only
eukaryotic algae can perform assimilation [32]. Figure 2.2 describes the assimilation process of
inorganic nitrogen. As shown in the figure 2.2, translocation of inorganic nitrogen takes place across
the plasma membrane where reduction of nitrate takes place followed by the incorporation of
ammonium into amino acids and glutamine. Initially nitrate is reduced to nitrite by a "NADH–
dependent" nitrate reductase and the nitrite reduced to ammonium by "NADPH–linked" nitrite
reductase present within the algae. The resulting ammonium is assimilated to form amino acids by
glutamine and glutamate synthase within the intracellular fluid using adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
glutamate (Glu) and glutamine synthase. Thus, all inorganic forms of nitrogen are finally reduced to
organic form (amino acids) [32]. Figure 2.2 Conversion of inorganic

Cellular Respiration : Energy From Food Sources
Cellular respiration is how we extract energy from food sources, especially food sources such as
glucose as most of the food we eat ends up as glucose in the body. The chemical formula for one
molecule of glucose is C6H12O6. In order to turn this glucose into energy, oxygen is needed. This is
done through cellular respiration where the glucose and oxygen is turned into 6 molecules of CO2, 6
molecules of water and some energy. Before we can use that energy our body has just produced we
have to turn it into a specific form of stored energy called ATP or adenosine triphosphate. In order
for our body to use the energy we make our cells need the energy to be transferred into ATP,
adenosine triphosphate to be able to let our body do anything. Adenosine triphosphate is made up of
adenine, ribose and three phosphate groups attached to it. The three phosphate groups are very
uncomfortable being next to each other, so ATP splits them up shifts one of the phosphate groups off
the end creating Adenosine diphosphate. In this reaction energy is released. Through cellular
respiration one molecule of glucose can yield a bit of heat energy and 38 molecules of ATP at its
best, a normal range would be between 29–30 molecules of ATP. Cellular respiration isnt something
that happens all at once. Glucose is is transformed into ATP's over 3 separate stages; Glycolysis, the
krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis is just the breaking up of the glucose 6
carbon rings into two

Lab Report On Cellular Respiration
Abstract
This experiment consisted of 3 respirometers, one with ants, one with radish seeds, and one with
glass beads. Each with 4 pellets of KOH and a piece of cotton. They were placed in a water bath that
was at 75 degrees fahrenheit. A bubble at the end of the respirometer was measured every five
minutes, and this distance showed how well the organisms were respiring. The radish seeds were
able to do the most cellular respiration in 25 minutes, with the ants being a close second, and the
control respirometer of the glass beads doing the least.
Introduction
Cellular respiration is the group metabolic reactions that happen in the cell of living organism that
creates adenosine triphosphate, ATP, from biochemical energy. The formula for cellular respiration
is C6H12O6 +6O26CO2+6H2O+ATP. This formula means glucose and oxygen are turned into
water,carbon dioxide and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) energy through chemical reactions. Cellular
respiration occurs in all cells which allows them to grow. Raphanus raphanistrum subsp. Sativus
seed, also known as radish seed, undergo cellular respiration because they are not yet able to
perform photosynthesis, which is how plants create their energy. Hymenoptera
formicidae,commonly known as ants, undergo cellular respiration to produce the energy they need
to live. The potassium hydroxide (KOH) tablets were used to turn the gaseous carbon dioxide into
soild carbon dioxide. If the carbon dioxide was in a gasesous it would cause the

The Supply Of Adenosine Triphosphate And Creatine...
In Football, the muscles rely on three major systems to supply the energy needs –– the ATP/PC,
glycolytic, and oxygen (anaerobic) energy systems. The ATP/PC system is not oxidative – it does
not utilize oxygen. Rather, this system creates energy through the utilization of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP). CP is created in the body and uses muscle strands
as a way of storage. It is broken around chemicals (enzymes) to recover ATP, which is likewise
stored in the muscle strands. Whenever ATP and is thus disintegrated, the outcome is a small burst
of energy that triggers a muscle withdrawal. This is the system used for short bursts of high–
intensity work lasting approximately 10 seconds or less. The glycolytic system uses starches such as
carbohydrates as fuel to create ATP for energy. This is a two–stage system where glucose is
separated to shape ATP and pyruvic corrosive or lactic acid. It is the system utilized for moderately
brief times of high–intensity work enduring just a couple of minutes. Following a couple of minutes
of work, the amassing of lactic acid will achieve a point where physical torment and exhaustion will
start to prevent good performance. This is alluded to as the lactate threshold. The aerobic oxidative
system uses sugars, fats and proteins to produce ATP for energy. This is a three–phase system
comprised of many steps in preparation of the Aceytl–CoA, the Krebs cycle and the electron
transport chain. The Krebs cycle and electron

Why Is Mitochondria Important?
Mitochondria are important because they allow our bodies to function by converting oxygen that we
breathe in and the nutrients we ingest from food to energy we can use in the form of ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate). This is done through aerobic respiration (requires oxygen), without the
many mitochondria we have in our body we would not have sufficient energy from anaerobic
respiration for our metabolic requirements. (Link its importance to its other functions– what would
happen if it could not perform its functions e.g. lack of regulation of apoptosis and cancer– links to
essays overall argument).
Mitochondria is inherited maternally, so a mother will pass on the mtDNA mutation to her offspring.
It is generally not paternally inherited because during fertilisation the sperm sheds it tail with carries
the genetic information for mitochondria. However there has been some cases of paternal transfer of
mtDNA in patients with mitochondrial myopathy. Homoplasmy– all mtDNA are identical.
Heteroplasmy– There is a mutation of mtDNA, needs to reach a threshold of about 60% for clinical
signs to be apparent.
Mitochondrial disorders may be caused by mutations which are acquired or inherited in
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) or in nuclear genes that code for mitochondria. Disorders can also be
a result of environmental stress, adverse ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Secondary Mitochondrial Disease can occur when mitochondria are damaged by oxidative stress
includes diseases like Parkinson's or Alzheimer's (research still going on). The connection between
other diseases and mitochondrial disease is being still being studied as it has a wide range of
different effects on the body. Primary Mitochondrial Disease can be due to mutated genes that are
passed on or inherited or can be sporadic. Mitochondrial disease may be inherited from the
mitochondrial DNA or from nuclear DNA. It can also be a spontaneous

Adenosine Function In The Body
Function in the body Adenosine primarily acts in the central nervous system. It promotes sleep in
the evening and assists the brain to wake up in the morning. The concentration of adenosine is
highest in the brain during waking hours and it builds up the longer a person is awake. Since the
ATP reserves are depleted and stored in the brain, it results in the buildup of adenosine in the brain.
When a person is asleep, adenosine is metabolized by adenosine deaminase, which results in a
decreased concentration in the brain in the morning which causes a person to wake up. In the brain
there are several receptors for adenosine, one being the A1 receptors which are mostly in the
cerebellum, it helps with memory storage. A2 receptors are in the striatum ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
For example, in 1991, Mahan found that adenosine is involved in memory storage in the cerebellum,
and how it is used on the thalamus where the brain uses it for a relay center to the cortex. In 1989,
Phillis found that adenosine can act a neuroprotective agent against a seizure induced injury. Finally,
James and Richardson in 1993 found that after the stimulation period when ATP and ADP drop to
increase the levels of adenosine. There are many other scientists who made and are making
groundbreaking discoveries on this neurotransmitter; however, those are a few interesting

What Is Mitochondria?
The body contains trillions of cells, and within one of those cells are thousands of miniscule
organelles. They provide a eukaryote with the ability of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is
defined as: "...a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to
convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release
waste products". Basically these organelles produce energy, and that is what allows us to live. They
are called "mitochondria", and their processes involve very complex biomolecular procedures, all
happening on the scale of a few atoms. They can be difficult to understand but I hope to clear that
up.
Mitochondria consist of two membranes, the outermost of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Material is brought into the matrix by electron transport chains, which are used to set up a proton
gradient between the inner and outer membrane (called the inter membrane space). These protons
accumulate to such a point in the inter membrane that they naturally flow back into the matrix. The
electron transport chains are made possible by a number of proteins studding the inner membrane,
such as the cytochrome electron shuttles. Upon reentering the matric the H+ (Hydrogen ions, which
are the carriers of the protons that were previously mentioned– no need to worry!) go through ATP
synthase, which in turn powers the synthase to phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Then the ATP can be used later on to be coupled with
thermodynamically unfavorable reactions which allows those chemical actions to carry one.
Thermodynamically unfavorable reactions are ones in which the energy state of the products is
higher than that of the reactant, the energy in this instance being thermodynamic (Means pertaining
to heat). Thermodynamically favorable reactions are self–sufficient and work by themselves
whereas thermodynamically unfavorable reactions do not.
The outer membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer (Membrane that has a hydrophilic, water
repelling side, and a hydrophobic, water attracting side), spreading throughout integral proteins. The
phospholipid bilayer contains porins which allow the passage of molecules that are 10,000 Daltons
(Biochemical measure of proteins, the chemist in me likes to say atomic mass units: the two are
equivalent) or less. The permeable membrane allows for ions, water and some certain proteins to
flow freely into the membranes working

Adenosine Triphosphate Structure
ATP is universal form of free energy in all living organisms and is an energy coupling agent
(Tymoczko et al. 2013. p. 250). When ATP is hydrolyzed to produce adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
and orthophosphate (Pi), or to adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and Pi, free energy is liberated.
This free energy can then be utilized for endergonic reactions that need an input of free energy in
order to occur. The recycling of ATP/ADP is critical to for energy exchange in living organisms.
Thermodynamically unfavorable reactions can be driven if they are coupled to ATP hydrolysis in a
new reaction.
The structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is composed of a three phosphate groups (in a
triphosphate unit) attached to the nucleotide adenine with two phosphoanhydride bonds. The two
phosphoanhydride bonds are formed by the loss of a water molecule (Tymoczko et al. 2013. p. 250).
ATP is formed in chemotrophs through the oxidation of carbon fuels and in photosynthetic
organisms when light energy is converted into chemical energy (Topic 4.2–The Structure and Role
of ATP). ATP has a high phosphoryl transfer potential due to its structural differences compared to
ADP and Pi. These structure differences include (1) electrostatic repulsion, (2) resonance
stabilization, and (3) stabilization due to hydration (Tymoczko et al. 2013. p. 252) At a neutral pH,
ATP has four negative charges that repel each other. However, hydrolysis of ATP reduces this
electrostatic repulsion. Also, ADP and Pi have

Genetic Disease And Its Effects On The Body
Introduction Genetic diseases are being discovered more often as we learn the affects that genes
have on the body. McArdle's disease is a metabolic disease that affects skeletal muscle because of a
gene mutation. The genetic mutation prevents the creation of the enzyme myophosphorylase. This
enzyme is responsible for the breakdown of glycogen in muscles (Haldeman–Englert, 2014).
McArdle's disease is also known as Type V Glycogen Storage Disorder. It affects approximately one
out of every 100,000 people ("McArdlesDisease.org," n.d.). Glycogen is broken down into glucose,
which is used to produce adenosine triphosphate for muscle energy. Patients can live relatively
normal lives with this disease once proper care and education has been provided (Kitaoka, 2014).
Genetic Nature McArdle's disease is seen as muscle dysfunction caused by a mutation in the gene
that codes for the enzyme myophosphorylase. The myophosphorylase gene, PYGM, is located at
chromosome 11q13 (Kitaoka, 2014). There have been over 100 mutations of the gene detected. In
North American Caucasians, the mutation commonly found is the p.R50X (Kitaoka, 2014). In
Japanese patients, it is found to be the p.F709del/F710de mutation (Kitaoka, 2014). Researchers
have seen a correlation between ethnicity and the type of mutation of that they carry. All the
mutations cause a lack of the myophosphorylase enzyme in the muscle tissue. It is found to be an
autosomal recessive inheritance trait. Those who are heterozygotes

Power And Fatigue Index
The magnitude of an individual's peak power, relative power and fatigue index can be directly
related to an individuals training status. This can be determined by performing a short duration
supramaximal anaerobic test. Peak power output heavily relies on the anaerobic metabolism within
the body. Comprising of the adenosine triphosphate – phosphocreatine (ATP–PC) system and
glycolytic anaerobic metabolic pathways. When physiological stress is placed on the metabolic,
cardiovascular and musculoskeletal system during physical training our body is forced to adapt to
cope with it more efficiently. Thus creating the differences in power and fatigue index within trained
and untrained individuals.
Anaerobic power and fatigue index will be measured

Anaerobic Respiration Lab Report
Intro
There is a hierarchical structure within all multicellular organisms, increasing from macromolecules
to cells, tissues, organs and systems (Crierie & Greig, 2002). The bicep, see figure 1, is made up of
muscle cells and tissues, of which require energy to contract and move the arm.
As the muscle continues to contract it uses energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate, also known
as ATP. Breaking bonds between the carbon atoms in glucose produces this energy. This is done
through a process called glycolysis. During each step, small amounts of energy are released and
transferred to ATP (Crierie & Greig, 2002). These first steps of glycolysis occur in the cytoplasm of
cells, while the remaining occur in the mitochondria, the organelle where aerobic respiration is
carried out, producing approximately thirty six ATP. As seen in figure 2, in the absence of oxygen,
lactic acid is produced, resulting in only two ATP being produced. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Muscle fatigue is present if there is a decrease in the capacity to perform physical actions with the
same muscle (Enoka & Duchateau, 2008). This is due a decrease in the energy available for the
muscle to use, therefore using anaerobic respiration as a source of energy as oxygen is depleted and
aerobic respiration can no longer be used.
The independent variable in this investigation is the prior amount of exercise completed by the
participant measured in two minute intervals. The dependent variable is the level of fatigue of the
bicep muscle, measured by the amount of repetition in a given time. The control is the first trial,
where no prior exercise has been completed within at least the last hour. It is hypothesized that as
the prior amount of exercise is increased, then the amount of repetitions in the given time limit will
decrease.
Materials
2kg weight

Atp Synthesis Essay
ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate, it is a useable form of energy for cells, the energy is trapped
in a chemical bond that is released and it is used to dive other reactions that need energy.
Photosynthetic organisms use the sunlight to get energy in order to synthesize their own fuel.
Chemical energy is then made by converting the sunlight in order to compel the synthesise of the
carbohydrates from the carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is then released when the carbohydrate is
synthesized. Photosynthesis is on two parts, first there is the light reactions in where the light is
converted into chemical energy which is the ATP, and then this is stacked in the chloroplasts
membranes in where the ATP and the electron carrier are used in the second part. The second part of
the process is called light–independent and it occurs in the chloroplasts in the stroma, the carbon
dioxide produces sugar in a series of reaction called the Calvin cycle.
In a non–photosynthesis the fuel has to be taken and the most common fuel is the sugar glucose the
other molecules like fats or protein can give energy but it has to be converted into glucose or
something that can be used in a glucose metabolism. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are three parts, the first glycolysis in where the glucose metabolism in the cell produces
double molecules that occur outside the mitochondria in a cytoplasm. The second part is the cellular
respiration this is when oxygen converts cells into three molecules of carbon dioxide and traps then
energy that is released in the ATP process. The third part is called fermentation this is when the cells
convert into lactic acid that does not require oxygen however it is not efficient as cellular respiration
because it occurs in the

Enzymology, Catalytic Mechanism, Carbohydrate Metabolism,...
Enzymology, Catalytic Mechanism, Carbohydrate Metabolism, Adenosine Triphosphate
Enzymes are proteins and their function is to act as catalysts to speed up certain chemical reactions
in the cell that would be slower without them. This process occurs as steps in a cycle with separate
reactions in each step. If there is a missing product the step in the cycle will be incomplete and the
normal function of the organism cannot be accomplished causing negative effects on the organism.
The biological processed of the body would occur much more slowly or possibly not at all without
the presents of enzyme reactions.
Enzymes have some very specific qualities. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature and they tend to
work faster as temperature ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Fernandes, J 2006)
The Cori cycle is a metabolic pathway where lactic acid is made anaerobic glycolysis in the muscle
and then travels to the liver where it is converted to glucose and then goes back to the muscle and is
made back into lactate. (Wikipedia, 2007) When muscle activity occurs epinephrine is released by
the brain. Epinephrine stimulates glycogen breakdown in the muscles as well as the liver. Muscle
activity causes stored ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) to be used quickly and more ATP must be
created by the breakdown of glycogen. In anaerobic conditions glucose is converted to pyruvate and
then to lactic acid. The lactic acid then travels though the blood stream to the liver. In the liver
lactate is converted back to pyruvate and then back to glucose. Once it has converted back to
glucose it can be returned to the muscle for energy. (Ophardt, 2003)
When glycogen is used for an energy source 2 moles of ATP are produced per mole of glucose.
However, when glucose is formed from lactate 6 ATP are needed making it much less energy
efficient. If the interconversions of the Cori cycle occurred and remained in a single cell you would
deplete energy sources because you have a –4 ATP when converting lactate to glucose of the cell
and possible cell damage and you would then have a buildup of the waste product lactic acid
ultimately causing

Discrepancy Between Anaerobic And Aquatic Analysis
There is a discrepancy regarding anaerobic and aerobic capacity between different species of marine
organisms. Anaerobic metabolism does not need oxygen to transform glucose to pyruvate (Somero,
1980). Type II fibers are found in anaerobic glycolysis. These fibers consist of white muscle that can
be used quickly but are also scarce when it comes to prolonged use. White muscle fibers are
primarily used in organisms that have short bursts of strong energy (Dickson, 1993). To focus on the
white muscle fibers, any red muscle fibers were not allowed in the samples (Somero, 1980). To keep
consistency, my group tried to take muscle samples from the same spot on each species because of
possible contamination if the muscle was extracted from other areas. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
They prefer to be in sandy areas in shallow or deep water (Chesapeake Bay). Croakers are bottom
feeders which means that they eat food on the ocean floor. This is because they are found in deep
water. A bottom feeder diet includes other small fish and crustaceans (Chesapeake Bay). Shrimp can
tolerate any level of salinity and prefer to live in the bottom of shallow waters (Arnott, Neil, Ansell
1998). They typically feed on small fish and algae. They are also well–known for their unique
escape mechanism of flipping off the sea floor and diving into the sediment to get away from
predators (Arnott, Neil, Ansell 1998). This short duration of spontaneous movement requires lots of
white muscle fibers. The objectives of this experiment were to gain the knowledge of how to
perform an enzyme assay, compare the LDH activity in three species, and to associate the LDH
activity values with the capacity for anaerobic metabolism. My group originally thought that all
three of these organisms would have higher LDH levels due to their daily activities. However due to
more in depth background information about their behaviors, my group hypothesized that croakers
would have the highest LDH activity levels due to their continuous migration between multiple
habitats. This constant movement requires a lot of energy. Our results showed that lizardfish had the
highest LDH activity values as opposed to our

An Investigation Of Understanding Energy Systems
Energy is required for all kinds of bodily processes including growth and development, repair, the
transport of various substances between cells and of course, muscle contraction. It is this last area
that Exercise Scientists are most interested in when they talk about energy systems.
Whether it 's during a 26–mile marathon run or one explosive movement like a tennis serve, skeletal
muscle is powered by one and only one compound... adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (2). However,
the body stores only a small quantity of this 'energy currency ' within the cells and its enough to
power just a few seconds of all–out exercise (5). So the body must replace or resynthesize ATP on
an ongoing basis. Understanding how it does this is the key to understanding energy systems.
An ATP molecule consists of adenosine and three (tri) inorganic phosphate groups. When a molecule
of ATP is combined with water (a process called hydrolysis), the last phosphate group splits away
and releases energy. The molecule of adenosine triphosphate now becomes adenosine diphosphate
or ADP (2).
Energy is measured in calories To replenish the limited stores of ATP, chemical reactions add a
phosphate group back to ADP to create ATP. This process is called phosphorylation. If this occurs in
the presence of oxygen it is labelled aerobic metabolism or oxidative phosphorylation. If it occurs
without oxygen it is labelled anaerobic metabolism (2).
Energy Sources to Replenish ATP
Several energy sources

ATPAnd Creatine ATPAs The Energy Currency Of Life
Energy System
What is ATP?
ATP is often referred to as the energy currency of life. The body's cells use a special form of energy
called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to power almost all their activities, such as muscle contraction,
protein construction, transportation of substrates, communication with other cells, activating heat
control mechanisms, and dismantling damaged and unused structures. It is the high–energy
molecule that stores the energy we need to do have for just about everything we do. It is present in
the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm of every cell, and essentially all the physiological mechanisms that
require energy for operation obtain it directly from the stored ATP. Whether it's during a 26–mile
marathon run or one explosive movement like a tennis serve, skeletal muscle is powered by one and
only one compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) . However, the body stores only a small quantity
of this 'energy currency' within the cells and its enough to power just a few seconds of all–out
exercise for example a a explosive movement in a football match.
Phosphocreatine:
Amount of ATP produced – ATP and creatine phosphate (or phosphocreatine, or PCr) make up the
ATP–PCr system. it is the immediate energy system. Creatine phosphate (PCr) is a high–energy
compound. When exercise intensity is high, or energy needs are instantaneous, creatine phosphate
stored in muscle is broken down to provide energy to make ATP. When the high–energy bond in PCr
is broken, the energy it releases is used to resynthesise ATP.
Sports – The muscles use the phosphocreatine energy system, also known as the anaerobic alactic
system, during the first 10 seconds of sustained muscle contraction. It is anaerobic because it doesn't
require oxygen to function. The energy system that powers muscle contraction uses ATP – adenosine
triphosphate.
Recovery time – Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) stores in the muscle last for approximately 2
seconds and the rest of ATP from Creatine Phosphate (CP) will continue until CP stores in the
muscles are depleted, approximately 4 to 6 seconds. This gives us around 5 to 8 seconds of ATP
production.
Anaerobic System:
Amount of ATP produced – The anaerobic glycolytic system produces a lot of power, but

horizontal gel electrophoresis platform and covered with...
horizontal gel electrophoresis platform and covered with pH > 12 alkaline solution for 20 min
without electrophoresis[15]. The slide were then neutralized and stained with 50 µl of 20 µg /ml
ethidium promide. This cytotoxicity method of cell growth following to pro–mutagen exposure was
detected under cytocharasin B and frequency binuclear cells. Fairbrain and co–workers reported the
advantage of this technique include: i) high sensitivity for detecting low levels of DNA damage; ii)
ability to detect genotoxicity in the absence of mitotic activity; iii) the requirement for small
numbers of cells per sample; iv) flexibility; v) low costs; vi) easy application and vii) the relatively
short time period needed to complete an experiment [16]. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The plate was then read for absorbance at 540nm using the microplate reader. The neutral red assay
was chosen because it assesses the lysosomal integrity of cells. As the integrity of the lysosome in
cells is dependent upon a very wide range of healthy internal machinery, as opposed to a single or a
few individual pathways, it provides a good overview of general cellular health as deficient systems
inside the cell are likely to impact on the cells ability to retain the neutralred stain [19] .
LDH release
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an oxidative enzyme that changes lactate into pyruvate during
glycolysis. LDH widely exists in cell membranes and cytoplasm, and is released from cells into
culture supernatants immediately after cell damage. Therefore, photospectrometrical assessment for
cell viability through the extracellular leakage of LDH can be applied for the antiviral evaluation of
compounds [20] .
The method using cell line and described previously. The LDH released from necrotic cells into the
extracellular fluid was determined after 4 h of treatment with the test agents by using the
commercially available Cytotoxicity Detection Kit (LDH). The plates were centrifuged at 400 g and
4 ◦C for 4 min and an aliquot of 50 μl was taken to quantify the LDH[21].
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), that is present in all metabolically active cells, can be determined in
a bioluminescent

Cellular Respiration
Respiration is defined as the process of taking air into the body. Cellular respiration is much more
complex. An organism consists of a single cell and even while a humans body contain trillions, all
cells undergo cellular respiration. It also is by this process of breaking down food molecules which
are simple sugars that produces the energy currency of the cell, also known as Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP).
The way that photosynthesis works is by capturing light energy. This energy is captured in chemical
bonds, and meaning that plants use radiant energy to fix molecules together. This is how plants
provide their own nutrition from carbondioxide, water, and minerals. Also as part of this process,
oxygen is released in the atmosphere which

Atp Adenosine Triphosphate Research Paper
ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate: is a complex chemical compound, which is formed with the energy
that is released from food and stored in all cells, but particularly muscles. Only from the energy
released by the breakdown of this compound can the cells perform work. The ATP–PC System is an
anaerobic process which means that fast bursts of energy for short, powerful bursts are produced and
there is no oxygen involved in this process. www.ptdirect.com/anatomy–and–physiology/energy–
systems/the–atp–p–system The fuel source for this energy system is Creatine phosphate. A muscle
cell has some amount of ATP within it that it can use immediately, but not very much. To replenish
the ATP levels quickly, muscle cells contain a high–energy phosphate compound called creatine
phosphate. The phosphate group is removed from creatine phosphate by an enzyme called creatine
kinase, and is transferred to ADP to form ATP. The cell turns ATP into ADP, and the phosphagen
rapidly turns the ADP back into ATP. As the muscle continues to work, the creatine phosphate levels
begin to decrease. All three energy systems are active at any given time whilst doing any activity
depending ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The creatine phosphate system kicks in and then supplies energy for 8–10 seconds. This would be
the major energy system used by the muscles of a 100– metre sprinter or a weightlifter, where rapid
acceleration, short–duration exercise occurs If exercise continues longer then lactic acid energy
system kicks in and this would be true for short–distance exercises such as a 200– or 400– metre run
or a 100–metre swim. If exercise continues, the aerobic energy system takes over. This would occur
in endurance events for example an 800–metre run, a marathon run, rowing, cross–country skiing
and distance

Atp Lab Report
Morgan Calafati
#1 MAKE OBSERVATIONS
Even in middle school biology I learned that the body produced ATP and used it for energy, and I
never thought about what the abbreviation meant. When I learned that ATP was adenosine
triphosphate, which is composed of a modified form of adenine and phosphates, it made me wonder
why there is not chemical energy using the other bases.
#2 ASK QUESTIONS
Why is ATP the most common form of chemical energy rather than CTP, TTP, or GTP?
#3 HYPOTHESIS
Because adenine is a purine and utilizes 2 hydrogen bonds when it is in DNA, it fits better with the
ribose and phosphates.
The body produces an excess of adenine so it is the best choice for a nitrogenous base.
When mRNA is travelling to the ribosome to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
dATP has no purpose other than in DNA replication.
ATP is the most popular source because adenosine has many uses.
ATP is used in kinases, as a source of energy, and can combine with niacin to form NAD.
Guanosine is similar to adenosine, but is rarely used to give up phosphates. The only exception is in
tubulin, which helps with construction of cytoskeletons.
Guanosine is mainly used in G–proteins, which help relay hormonal and chemical signals.
Other guanosine molecules mainly help control intercellular traffic and relay signals.
Uridine is mainly used in glycogen synthesis. UTP will bind to a glucose and form a UDP glucose
and a free phosphate, making the glucose more reactive.
UDP is used to help break down the other monosaccharides as well.
CTP is similar to UTP except that instead of helping break down sugar CTP helps to break down
fats.
CDP–diacylglycerol and CDP–choline are all found in plasma membranes.
ATP is ideal because it is a purine and purine rings give them a wider range of uses.
Source 3:

Cellular Respiration Assignment
– Cellular Respiration Assignment –
1. What two molecules are formed when a phosphate is removed from ATP?
There are three phosphate groups in ATP molecule (Adenosine Triphosphate), when removing one
phosphate molecule, ADP molecule is formed (Adenosine Diphosphate).
2. What is the function of ATP? Describe the molecule.
The function of ATP is storing energy within a cell. ATP is adenosine triphosphate,
C10H16N5O13P3, a high energy complex, giving the necessary power to push metabolistic
reactions in the body. Its composed of adenosine, a ribose sugar, and three phosphates.
3. Describe how ADP is converted into ATP.
By adding one phosphate molecule to ADP, it becomes ATP.
4. Differentiate between oxidation and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What are they?
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light–dependent reactions or light reactions
capture light energy and utilize it to make energy–storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the
second stage, the light–independent reactions use ATP and NADPH to capture and reduce CO2.
5. State the four factors that must be present to begin the process of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts, H2O, sunlight, CO2.
6. Summarize the events of the light reactions.
Light Reactions of Photosynthesis:
Electrons flow to NADP
Split Water

Pump Protons
ATP Production
7. What are the products of the light reactions?
NADPH, O2 and ATP
8. In what part of the chloroplast do the light reactions take place?
Thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts.
9. Where in the chloroplast is chlorophyll located?
Chlorophyll molecules are embedded in the thylakoid membranes.
l0. What is the term for the stacks of disks seen in plants?
Grana for plural / Granum for singular.
11. What is the term for the fluid surrounding these stacks?
Stoma, is the fluid matrix that surrounds the thylakoids.
I2. What function is served by chlorophyll?
Chlorophyll is a molecule that absorbs light and synthesizes it into the energy, in turn giving plants
life. Chlorophyll is primarily responsible for the photosynthesis process and hence performs as the
basic building block of all life. It also gives plants

Photosynthesis Process
Photosynthesis is a process that plans protistans and some bacteria, use energy from the sun to create
sugar. Cellular respiration turns into ATP which is fuel used by all living things. The transformation
of sunlight energy into chemical energy, also goes along with the same process as green pigment
chlorophyll. The photosynthetic process mostly uses water and releases the oxygen that is
mandatory for us humans must have to live. The two stages connected with Photosynthesis are
called light dependent reactions and light independent reactions, light independent reactions is also
known as the Calvin Cycle. Light dependent reactions need sunlight, the energy from this sunlight is
consumed by chlorophyll and made into stored energy. This energy is now in the form of electron
carrier molecule NADPH ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These reactions working in respiration are called catabolic reactions, that break bigger molecules
down into smaller molecules , letting energy release in the operation , as weak so called high energy
components are substituted by stronger components in the produce. Respiration is mainly how a cell
releases energy to start the cellular procedure. Cellular respiration is thought of as an exoergic redox
reaction that puts off heat. The general reaction happens in a multitude of biochemical processes,
most of these are redox responses their selves. Even though cellular respiration happens to be a
combustion metathesis , it obviously does not appear as one during its process in a living cell
because of its sluggish discharge of energy from the multitude of oxidisation. The different stages of
cellular respiration consist of but are not limited to pyruvate oxidation, glycolysis, oxidative
phosphorylation, and the citric acid or Krebs

Aerobic Respiration Lab Report
The very existence of living cells depends heavily on the potential energy of the cell. At the
chemical level, these bonds have potential energy ("Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy.
Biology," n.d).
Most of the ATP formed during aerobic catabolism, could be the result from a process that begins
with passing electrons through a number of chemical reactions to a final electron acceptor O2. It is
the only place where aerobic respiration requires O2?. These reactions take place in specialized
protein complexes located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic organisms and
on the inner part of the cell membrane of prokaryotic organisms. This energy from the electrons is
used to generate ATP. This process is called?oxidative?phosphorylation("Adenosine ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
O2 continuously diffuses into plants for this purpose, where oxygen enters the body of living
organisms through the respiratory system. Electron transport is a series of chemical reactions in
which electrons are passed rapidly from one component to the next and onto the endpoint of the
chain where oxygen is the final electron acceptor and water is produced. There are four main
complexes composed of proteins, Figure 1, which results in four divisions, together with their
associated mobile and accessory electron carriers, where this is generally referred to as the?electron
transport chain.
The electron transport chain is replicated multiple times in the?inner mitochondrial membrane?of
eukaryotes and in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes, ("Aerobic Respiration, " n.d.)
Figure 1.?The electron transport chain is a series of electron transporters embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane that shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH2?to molecular oxygen. In
the process, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the inter–membrane space, and
oxygen is reduced to form water, ("Aerobic Respiration, Part 3: n.d.)? Reprinted [or adapted] with

Relationship Between Cellular Respiration And Photosynthesis
Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are the primary actions that organisms go through in order to
retrieve efficiency through nature. Photosynthesis is primarily done by plants and cellular respiration
is done by animals in order to gain the energy they require. Photosynthesis is the process through
which plant cells convert energy from the sun into chemical vitality. The chemical process of
photosynthesis involves carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight which are then turned to glucose and
oxygen. Cellular respiration consists of the separation of food molecules that results in energy which
is then reserved as adenosine triphosphate molecules. After sugar molecules are formed by
photosynthesis, the plants go through cellular respiration in order to form ATP molecules. Animals
gather food molecules ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first stage is glycolysis, the second stage is the linking reaction, the third stage is the Krebs
cycle, and the final stage is electron transport. During the glycolysis stage glucose is disintegrated,
this happens in the cytoplasm of the cell. Once the glucose is broken down two identical compounds
are created. Two electrons and a hydrogen ion are removed then attached to adenine forming
NADH. Water is then formed using an oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. In this stage two ATP
molecules are added. The linking reaction occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. NAD+ and
pyruvate come together to form NADH and an acetyl enzyme. The Krebs cycle involves removing
hydrogen atoms from the acetyl coenzyme in order to form four molecules of ATP. Carbon then
combines with oxygen, creating carbon dioxide. Electrons are unconstrained and move towards the
electron transport chain because of NADH. These electrons go through the electron chain until it
finds an oxygen atom, where water is formed then released. ATP molecules are created because of
the energy released by the electron. In this stage 32 molecules of ATP are

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