This document provides information on nursing care for patients with gastro-intestinal problems. It discusses assessment of gastro-intestinal issues including history taking, physical exam, and lab tests. Diagnostic studies like radiologic exams, endoscopy, and tests of gastric secretions are outlined. Common GI conditions like peptic ulcer disease, gastrointestinal bleeding, irritable bowel syndrome, and intestinal obstruction are described along with their causes, signs/symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment/nursing care.

1. 1
Unit 7
Nursing of Patients with
Gastro-Intestinal Problems

2. 2

3. 3
Gastrointestinal Assessment:
Nursing History(hx):
1. Ask about hx of abdominal pain.
2. Assess character of pain in detail (location, onset, and
frequency, precipitating factors, aggravating factors, type of
pain, severity, and course).
3. Observe client's movement and position.
4. Assess normal bowel habits and stool character; ask if client
use laxatives.
5. Assess if client has had abdominal surgery, trauma, or
diagnostic tests of GI tract.

4. 4
6. Assess if client has had recent weight changes.
7. Assess if client has common GI symptoms: nausea, vomiting,
cramping, difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia), belching,
flatulence, appetite, emesis (haematemesis), black or tarry
stools, heartburn, diarrhea, or constipation.

5. 5
Physical Assessment:
1. Landmarks: Xiphoid process, symphysis pubis,
and umbilicus.
2. Clients must be relaxed for abdominal
examination.
3. Keep quiet and warm environment, good light
and warm hands and instruments.

6. 6
Nutritional Assessment:
1. Diet history (e.g., food intake for the 2 days or use
food diary)
2. Ask about appetite and GI symptoms such as
altered taste perception, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea.
3. Socioeconomic circumstances also can affect
nutrition .Can the patient affords to buy food? Who
does the shopping?
4. Is cognitive impairment causing the patient to
forget to eat?
5. Use of drug.
6. Ask or observe whether patient is eating all meals

7. 7
Lab test:
1. Albumin : 3.2 to 4.5 g/dl is considered normal
2. Prealbumin: is a very sensitive indicator of acute
protein loss.
3. Triglyceride are lipids measures
4. Cholesterol is lipid measures
5. 24-hour urine creatinine if low levels are excreted,
little muscle is being produced (↓ protein).
6. Hemoglobin and hematocrit are used to assess for
Anemia, which may arise from a deficiency state.
7. Vitamin B12 and folate : ↓ cause a macrocytic
anemia
8. Assess the blood sugar.

8. 8
Diagnostic Studies
(A). Radiologic Examinations:

1-Abdominal X-ray examination.
Uses of
 To size and position of organs
 To determine the presence of any masses
 To determine the disturbances in intestinal gas, fluids,
or calcifications.
No preparation is needed except teaching
patient about the procedure and inform
him to remove all metal materials from the
area to be examined.

9. 9
2-Ultrasonography:
 Used for examination of the gallbladder and biliary system, liver, spleen,
and pancreas to determine the presence of abscesses or to evaluate the
stage of rectal cancer.
 Ultrasonography determines the size, shape, and position of the organ
being examined.
Nursing care:
 (NPO) before the examination (this reduces the amount of
gas in the bowel).
 When the gallbladder: the patient is given a fat-free meal the
evening before to promote accumulation of bile in the
gallbladder.
 The test will take 15 to 30 minutes.
 A water-soluble lubricant is applied to the abdomen.
 After the procedure, the lubricant is washed from the
abdomen and the patient may resume his usual diet.
 Ultrasound should be performed before any barium x-rays.

10. 10
Abdominal Computed tomography (CT):
CT can distinguish various tissues. Used for the biliary
tract, liver, kidney, and pancreas or to identify
tumors or abscesses in the abdominal cavity.
Nursing care:
1. NPO (nothing by mouth) before the procedure.
2. CT may be done with or without contrast medium. (If
oral contrast medium is used it is administered
approximately 2 to 4 hours before the procedure). Ask
about allergy.
3. The patient is positioned supine on radiographic table in
the center of the scanner

11. 11
Magnetic resonance imaging(MRI):
1. Most useful in evaluating soft tissue and blood
vessels in addition to other types if tissue.
2. Used to assist in evaluation of the fistulas and
sources of GI bleeding.
Nursing care:
1. NPO before abdominal MRI.
2. Determine whether the patient has any metallic
devices or implants devices (contraindications to
the use of MRI).

12. 12
Gastrointestinal series
 Use a radiopaque contrast media (barium) to provide an outline of the GI
tract.
 Used to detect GI tract tumors, ulcerative lesions, problems with motility.
Upper gastrointestinal series:
Provides visualization of the
1. esophagus
2. stomach
3. small intestine,
Nursing care:
1. NPO before the examination.
2. After the examination the nurse monitors the color and consistency of stool
to ensure that the barium contrast material is completely passed.

13. 13
Lower gastrointestinal series (barium enema).
1. Visualize the lower intestine above the
sigmoid
2. The patient is usually in a clear liquid diet for
24 hours before the test.
3. Laxatives and enemas are administered

14. 14
Endoscopy:
can be used for the upper and lower GI tract.
1. The endoscope is an instrument containing a
group of glass fibers that transmit light and
return an image to a scope at the head of the
instrument (fiberoptics).
2. Uses:
1. Used in diagnosing inflammatory, ulcerative,
infectious, and neoplastic diseases of the
gastrointestinal tract
2. removal of a foreign body.
3. Biopsy.
4. pictures can be taken

15. 15
Types:
1). Upper GI (Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD)):
1. direct visualization of the mucosal surface
and luminal structures of the:
1. Esophagus (Esophagoscopy).
2. Stomach (Gastroscopy).
3. Duodenum (Duodenoscopy).

16. 16
Nursing care:
Before and during procedure:
1. NPO before the procedure.
2. An intravenous line is started.
3. Instruct the patient on the purpose of and the procedure
4. consent form must be signed.
5. The patient is given a sedative such as diazepam (Valium) before the
procedure. Atropine may be given to reduce secretions
6. Vital signs are taken
7. The nurse maintains the patient on a cardiac monitor throughout the
procedure (because of the potential for cardiac arrhythmias).
8. Position the patient on the left side with the head of the bed elevated.
9. Suction may be applied to remove fluid and secretions

17. 17
After the procedure:
1. Assess vital signs until the patient is fully awake.
2. Food and fluid are withheld until the gag reflex returns (the
gag reflex is assessed by touching the back of the throat with
a tongue blade).
3. Observe for severe pain in the throat, neck, stomach,
elevated temperature, back, or shoulder (could indicate
perforation)..
4. Patient should be instructed to observe the vomitus or stool
for blood and report it immediately to the physician.

18. 18
Lower GI: Examination of the:
 Rectum alone (proctoscopy) and the rectum and
sigmoid colon (sigmoidoscopy).
Nursing care for proctoscopy and sigmoidoscopy:
1. Administration of enema before the examination.
2. Diet restriction according to the policy.
3. Position the patient on knee-chest or lateral position.
4. Provide privacy
5. After the examination the patient is observed for sings
of perforation.

19. 19
Laboratory Studies:
 Laboratory studies that provide information about GI function
include:
blood
1. Nonspecific: Serum electrolytes, hematocrit and hemoglobin,
white blood cell count, and serum osmolarity and
bicarbonate.
2. Specific: Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is a protein seen
on some cancerous tissues of the GI system.
Urine: Urine urea nitrogen is used to assess protein balance.
Stool (fecal) analysis: examined for bacteria, parasites, pus, fat,
or blood (occult or hidden blood )

20. 20
other Diagnostic Tests:
Gastric secretion analysis for acids:
Aspiration of gastric secretion by NGT (many specimens
at different time according to the physician's directions).
Nursing care:
 NPO according to the physician's directions.
 Each specimen must be carefully labeled with the order
it was taken.
 Explain the procedure to the patient.
 Prepare emesis basin because patient may become
gagging during the procedure.

21. 21
Peptic Ulcer Disease
Peptic ulcers are erosions or ulcers that form in the esophagus, stomach, or the
duodenum.
Main types:
1. Gastric ulcers:
 The erosions in the stomach
Cause
1. exposure to irritants such as NSAIDs, smoking, alcohol, food allergens,
toxic chemicals, stress (cause bleeding in many sites),
2. H. pylori infections,
3. impaired mucosal defenses (not able to secrete adequate quantity or
quality of mucous to protect the stomach).
 Signs and symptoms of Gastric ulcers:
 Pain 1 to 2 hours after eating. Eating may increase pain.
 Weight loss.
 Bleeding.

22. 22
2. Duodenal ulcers:
refer to ulcers in the duodenum related to a high
secretion of HC1.
Signs and symptoms:
1. Pain 2 to 4 hours after eating.
2. Nocturnal pain may be present (between midnight
and 3:00 a.m).
3. Eating frequently relieves symptoms.
3. Esophageal ulcer: the least common.

23. 23
Complication of Peptic ulcers :
1. Life-threatening hemorrhage.
2. Perforation: gastric or intestinal contents entering
the abdominal cavity → peritonitis.
Diagnosis of Peptic ulcers is based on:
1. Symptoms and history.
2. EGD performed to visualize the ulcer.
3. H-pylori infection is suspected, a biopsy is obtained
during an EGD and a culture is performed.
4. Stools test may be positive for blood ( occult blood )
5. Anemia (Hb q 4 hours).

24. 24
Management:
A-Medical
1. If an ulcer bleeds, an EGD may be performed and the ulcer is either
injected with epinephrine to cause vasoconstriction or a special
electrical probe is used to burn the tissue that is bleeding.
2. A nasogastric (NG) tube may be inserted to remove gastric contents
and blood, and iced isotonic saline may be administered to help cause
vasoconstriction and stop the bleeding.
B-Surgical
1. Vagotomy:
2. The vagus nerve is cut removing vagal innervation to the fundus of the
stomach. This eliminates the production of hydrochloric acid, decreases
function of the gastrin hormone, and slows motility of the stomach.
 Vagotomy eliminates the complications of the more aggressive surgeries,
such as gastrectomies

25. 25
Gastrectomy:
2. Subtotal Gastrectomy performed when the ulcer
continues to bleed or if the ulcer has perforated. In
gastrectomies the portion of the stomach or
duodenum that is perforated is removed and the
bowel is reconnected with an anastomosis.
3. Antrectomy:-
a. BILLROTH 1 – Gastroduodenostomy
b. BILLROTH 2 - Gastrojejunostomy
4. Pyloroplasty :- A surgical procedure in which a
longitudinal incision is made into the pylorous and
transversely sutured closed to enlarge the outlet and
relax the muscle.

26. 26
C. Pharmacological:
1. Antacids
2. Histamine (H2) receptor antagonists (H2 blockers).
3. Antibiotics If H. pylori are present.
4. Proton pump inhibitor
D. Diet:
1. Foods that increase acid secretions such as milk,
coffee, tea, colas, and chocolate should be
consumed only in small amounts or eliminated if
possible.
2. Avoid bedtime eating as it increases nocturnal acid
secretions.

27. 27
Nursing care:
1. Ask client about lifestyle, NSAID usage, stress,
smoking, and alcohol use and starts lifestyle
modifications as needed.
2. Assess client for sings and symptoms, and
complication
3. Help in diagnostic and treatment modalities.
4. Instruct client to stop use of NSAIDs such as
ibuprofen and indomethacin (they compromise
mucosal defenses and increase acid secretion).
5. Administer medications as ordered.
6. Check vital signs every 4 hours and PRN.
7. If ordered keep client NPO.

28. 28
Gastro-Intestinal Bleeding (GIB)
GIB: is internal bleeding or hemorrhage that can be
seen with vomits (haematemesis) or with black
stool (containing digested blood called malaena)
and fresh blood (lower GI bleeding).
Causes:
1. Peptic ulcers
2. Oesophageal varices
3. Cancer.
4. Haemorrhoids and anal fissures.
5. Ulcerative colitis.

29. 29
Diagnosis:
1. Examine vomits to determine that it is from stomach: it contain food and
contain small clots.
2. Occult blood test.
3. Visualization procedures.
Treatment:
1. Bed rest.
2. Assess vital signs, client colour and general status (consciousness).
3. Administer medication (antiacids, antibiotic, vit K).
4. Keep client NPO as ordered.
5. Administer IV fluids and blood.
6. prepare patient for diagnostic procedure: EGD with:
A-Epinephrine to cause vasoconstriction.
B-Electrical probe is used to burn the tissue that is bleeding.
7. Insertion of nasogastric (NG) tube

30. 30
Irritable Bowel Syndrome or Disease (IBS)
is marked by chronic or periodic diarrhea alternating with
constipation and accompanied by abdominal cramps. It
includes common conditions including spastic colon,
spastic illus, and mucous colitis. Irritable bowel syndrome
occurs mostly in women.
Signs and symptoms:
1. Chronic constipation, diarrhea, or both.
2. Lower abdominal pain (usually in the left lower quadrant)
that's often relieved by defecation or passage of gas.
3. Small stools with visible mucus.
4. Dyspepsia, abdominal bloating, heartburn, dizziness, and
weakness.
5. Anxious.

31. 31
Diagnostic tests:
1. The most frequently tests include the
following:
1. Barium enema may reveal colonic spasm and a
tubular appearance of the descending colon. It
also rules out certain other disorders, such as
diverticula, tumors, and polyps.
2. Sigmoidoscopy: spastic contractions.
3. Stool examination for occult blood, parasites,
and pathogenic bacteria is negative.

32. 32
Treatment:
The aim of treatment is to control symptoms through:
1. Dietary changes.
2. Stress management.
3. Lifestyle modifications.
Drug therapy:
1. Antispasmodic drugs.
2. Antiemetics.
3. Simethicone: to relieve belching and bloating from
gas in the stomach and intestines.
4. Diazepam, prescribed for a short time to help reduce
psychological stress associated with irritable bowel
syndrome

33. 33
Nursing care:
1. Explain the disorder to the patient and reassure her that
irritable bowel syndrome can be relieved but not cured.
2. Educate client to eat at regular intervals
3. Advise client to eat slowly and carefully to prevent
swallowing air and to increase her intake of dietary fiber.
4. Encourage the patient to increase intake of water.
5. Encourage client to avoid beverages that increase GI
discomfort such as caffeinated drinks, fruit juices.
6. Help the patient to implement lifestyle changes that will
reduce stress.
7. Encourage more time for rest and relaxation
8. Discourage smoking.

34. 34
Intestinal Obstruction
Intestinal obstruction occurs when the contents
cannot pass through the intestine → large
amounts of fluid, bacteria, and swallowed air
are collected → Distention and poor
absorption → water and salts move from the
circulatory system to the intestine.
Obstructions may occur in the large or the small
intestine (ileum is the most common).

35. 35
Types of obstructions:
1. Mechanical: may be a partial or complete obstruction caused by:
1. Tumor.
2. Fecal impaction.
3. Hernia.
4. Volvulus: twisting of the bowel on itself.
5. Adhesions: scar tissue in the abdomen from previous surgeries
2. Neurogenic: known as a paralytic ileus, occurs when nerve transmission
to the bowel is interrupted by trauma, infection, or medications, resulting
in a portion of the bowel being paralyzed.
3. Vascular: occurs when blood flow to a portion of the bowel is interrupted,
as in atherosclerosis, and that portion of the bowel becomes necrotic

36. 36
Signs and symptoms:
1. Colicky abdominal pain.
2. Nausea.
3. Constipation.
4. Bloating (abdominal distention).
5. Abdominal tenderness on palpation.
6. Elevated amylase level, electrolytes, BUN,
and hemoglobin.
Diagnostic test:
1. Abdominal x-ray
2. Barium enema or UGI (barium meal).

37. 37
Management:
Treatment of the obstruction is dependent on the cause and
location.
A. Medical:
1. Inserting an NG tube for decompression
2. Providing IV fluids for rehydration
3. Treating the cause, such as the use of enemas for fecal
impaction.
B. Surgical:
Most bowel obstructions require surgery. A bowel resection is
performed to remove the portion of the bowel affected by the
obstruction.
C. Pharmacological:
1. Non-narcotic analgesics.
2. Antibiotics.
D.Activity: In cases of paralytic ileus, ambulation should be
encouraged to help bowel function return.

38. 38
Nursing care:
1. Help in diagnostic test and treatment procedures.
2. Administer medication.
3. If surgery is ordered, prepare client for surgery.
4. After surgery encourage clients to turn, cough, and
deep breathe every 2 hours initially postoperatively.
5. Continuous assessment of vital signs
6. Monitor I & O every shift.
7. Keep client NPO.
8. Assess weight daily.
9. Maintain and monitor NG tube as ordered for
abdominal decompression.

39. 39
Acute Inflammatory Intestinal Disorders
Appendicitis
Definition:- Acute inflammation of appendix
Causes:-
 Fecalith (hardened mass of stool)
 Tumour
 Foreign body
Clinical Manifestations
1. Rt Lower Quadrant pain
2. McBurney’s tenderness
3. Low Grade Fever, nausea , vomiting anorexia
4. Rebound tenderness

40. Contin……..
4. Rovsing’s signs :- It is elicited by palpating
the left lower quadrant causes pain to be felt
in the right lower quadrant.
5. Abdominal distension
6. Increase W.B.C.s count
 Complications:
 perforation peritonitis or abdominal
abscess ,occurs after 24 hrs after onset of
symptoms
(pain Tenderness ,fever,& toxic appearance) 40

41. 41
Appendicitis contin……
 Medical Management
1. Surgery is indicated if surgery diagnosed
(laprascopic or open appendectomy)
2. NPO ,IVF , antibiotics
3. Analgesic after diagnosis is made
 Nursing Management
1. Relieving pain &preventing FVD
2. Elimination of potential infection
3. Maintaining skin integrity
4. Reducing anxiety
5. Pre&post care

42. 42
Peritonitis
Peritonitis is the inflammation of the peritoneum
(the membranous covering of the abdomen). It is
a life-threatening condition.
Causes: irritating substances because of ruptured
portion of the digestive system (such as a the
appendix) and ruptured tubal pregnancy eg of
substances:
1. Feces.
2. Gastric acids.
3. Bacteria.
4. Blood in the abdominal cavity.

43. 43
Signs and symptoms:
1. Abdominal pain.
2. Nausea.
3. Constipation.
4. Absent bowel sounds.
5. Distended abdomen with tenderness on palpation.
6. Shallow and rapid respirations.
7. Dry mucous membranes, low urine output, and fever.
Diagnostic tests:
1. Laboratory analysis: elevated WBC, hemoglobin (If
bleeding) will be low, and Electrolytes may show low
sodium, potassium, and chloride.
2. Abdominal x-ray and ultrasound.

44. 44
Complications:
1. Adhesions (scar tissue).
2. Ileus (obstruction).
3. Pneumonia.
Management:
A. Surgical
1. Repair of the cause.
2. Irrigation of the abdominal cavity with saline and antibiotic solutions and
apply Drains from the abdomen (for several days to allow removing of any
fluid).
3. Administer NGT.
B. Pharmacological
1. Analgesics.
2. Antibiotics.
C. Diet: Clients will be NPO preoperatively and postoperatively until bowel sounds
return → clear, liquid diet →lowly progressed to a regular diet.
D. Activity
1. Preoperatively, clients will be placed on bed rest.
2. Postoperatively, clients need to be encouraged to turn, cough, and deep
breathe.

45. 45
Nursing care:
1. Monitor I & O every shift.
2. Monitor for signs of dehydration (dry mucous
membranes, poor skin turgor, and low urine output).
3. Assess VS including temperature every 4 hours.
4. Administer medications as ordered.
5. Keep client NPO and administer diet as ordered
6. Administer analgesics as ordered.
7. Encourage activity such as coughing and deep
breathing after analgesics.
8. Monitor NG tube to decompress abdomen.
9. Teach splinting of incision for cough and deep
breathing.
10. If surgery is ordered, prepare client for surgery.

46. HERNIA

A hernia is an abnormal weakness or hole in
an anatomical structure which allows
something inside to protrude through.

It is commonly used to describe a weakness in
the abdominal wall.
46

47. 47

48. Types of Hernia

Inguinal Hernia

Hiatus Hernia

Epigastric Hernia

Umblical Hernia

Incisional Hernia

Femoral Hernia
48

49. Types of Hernias

1. Inguinal hernia: Makes up 75% of all abdominal
wall hernias and occurring up to 25 times more often
in men than women.

Two types of inguinal hernias: indirect inguinal
hernia and direct inguinal hernia.

Indirect inguinal hernia

follows pathway that testicles made during prebirth
development.

This pathway normally closes before birth but remains a
possible place for a hernia.
49

50. Cont…..

Sometimes the hernial sac may protrude into the scrotum.

This type of hernia may occur at any age but becomes more
common as people age.

Direct inguinal hernia

This occurs slightly to the inside of the sight for the indirect
hernia, in a place where the abdominal wall is naturally slightly
thinner.

It rarely will protrude into the scrotum.

The direct hernia almost always occurs in the middle-aged and
elderly because their abdominal walls weaken as they age.
50

51. Contin……..

2. Hiatus hernia

A hiatus hernia occurs when the upper part of the stomach,
which is joined to the oesophagus (gullet), moves up into
the chest through the hole (called a hiatus) in the
diaphragm.

It is common and occurs in about 10 per cent of people.

Symptoms include:

Heartburn

Sudden regurgitation

Belching

Pain on swallowing hot fluids

Feeling of food sticking in the oesophagus
51

52. Contin…….

The diagnosis is confirmed by barium meal X-rays
or by passing a tube with a camera on the end into the
stomach (gastroscopy).

TREATMENT

Losing weight nearly always cures it.

Eating small meals each day instead of 2 or 3 large ones
helps.

Avoid smoking.

Take antacid.

Avoid spicy food.

Avoid hot drinks.

Avoid gassy drinks. 52

53. Femoral Hernia
53

54. 
Umbilical hernia

These common hernias (10-30%) are often noted at birth
as a protrusion at the bellybutton (the umbilicus).

This is caused when an opening in the abdominal wall,
which normally closes before birth, doesn’t close
completely.

Even if the area is closed at birth, these hernias can
appear later in life because this spot remains a weaker
place in the abdominal wall.

They most often appear later in elderly people and
middle-aged women who have had children.
54

55. Umblical Hernia
55

56. 
Incisional hernia

Abdominal surgery causes a flaw in the abdominal wall
that must heal on its own.

This flaw can create an area of weakness where a hernia
may develop.

This occurs after 2-10% of all abdominal surgeries,
although some people are more at risk.

After surgical repair, these hernias have a high rate of
returning (20-45%).
56

57. 
Epigastric hernia

Occurring between the navel and the lower part of
the rib cage in the midline of the abdomen, these
hernias are composed usually of fatty tissue and
rarely contain intestine.

Formed in an area of relative weakness of the
abdominal wall, these hernias are often painless
and unable to be pushed back into the abdomen
when first discovered
57

58. 
Femoral hernia

The femoral canal is the way that the femoral artery, vein,
and nerve leave the abdominal cavity to enter the thigh.

Although normally a tight space, sometimes it becomes
large enough to allow abdominal contents (usually
intestine) into the canal.

This hernia causes a bulge below the inguinal crease in
roughly the middle of the thigh.

Rare and usually occurring in women, these hernias are
particularly at risk of becoming irreducible and
strangulated.
58

59. Causes of hernias
59

Obesity

Heavy lifting

Coughing

Straining during a bowel movement or urination

Chronic ling disease

Fluid in the abdominal cavity

Hereditary

60. Signs and Symptoms

The signs and symptoms of a hernia can range from
noticing a painless lump to the painful, tender,
swollen protrusion of tissue that you are unable to
push back into the abdomen—possibly a strangulated
hernia.

Asymptomatic reducible hernia

New lump n the groin or other abdominal wall area

May ache but is not tender when touched.

Sometimes pain precedes the discovery of the lump.
60

61. contin-…..

Lump increases in size when standing or when
abdominal pressure is increased (such as coughing)

May be reduced (pushed back into the abdomen) unless
very large

Irreducible hernia

Usually painful enlargement of a previous hernia that
cannot be returned into the abdominal cavity on its own
or when you push it

Some may be long term without pain
61

62. Contin…..

Can lead to strangulation

Signs and symptoms of bowel obstruction may occur,
such as nausea and vomiting

Strangulated hernia

Irreducible hernia where the entrapped intestine has its
blood supply cut off

Pain always present followed quickly by tenderness and
sometimes symptoms of bowel obstruction (nausea and
vomiting)

You may appear ill with or without fever

Surgical emergency

All strangulated hernias are irreducible (but all
irreducible hernias are not strangulated)
62

63. Management

Treatment of a hernia depends on whether it is
reducible or irreducible and possibly strangulated.

Reducible

Can be treated with surgery but does not have to be.

Irreducible

All acutely irreducible hernias need emergency treatment because
of the risk of strangulation.

An attempt to push the hernia back can be made

Surgery :- Herniorraphy (Repair of Hernia)

Hernioplasty
63

64. Haemmorrhoids

Definition:- Haemmorrhoids are dilated
portions of veins in the anal canal.

Causes:-

Shearing of the mucosa during defecation

Clinical manifestations:

Itching and pain in the anus

Bright red bleeding with defecation
64

65. 
Management

High residue diet

Increased fluid intake

Warm compress

Sitz bath

Analgesic ointment

Suppositories

Bulk forming agents such as Psyllium
65

66. Non surgical treatments for
Hemmorrhoids

Infra red photocoagulation

Bipolar diathermy

LASER therapy

Injection of sclerosing agents

Conservative surgical treatment

Rubber- band ligation procedure

Cryosurgery :- Freezing the haemmorrhoid for
a sufficient time to cause necrosis.
66

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Conditions Affect the Pancreatic
and Hepatobiliary Systems
A. Pancreatititis
Pancreatititis is the Inflammation of the pancreas (acute and
chronic). Mortality rate of Pancreatititis is 10%.
 Chronic pancreatitis causes irreversible tissue damage.
 Pancreatitis involves autodigestion: The enzymes normally
excreted by the pancreas digest pancreatic tissue.
Causes
1. Abnormal organ structure (gallstone).
2. Pancreatic cysts or tumors, penetrating peptic ulcers, or
trauma.
3. Drugs: glucocorticoids, thiazides.
4. Complication of: renal failure, kidney transplantation, and
open-heart surgery.

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Predisposing factors:
1. Heredity.
2. Emotional or neurogenic factors.
3. It is associated with biliary tract disease,
alcoholism, and trauma.
Signs and symptoms:
1. Intense epigastric pain centered close to the umbilicus
and radiating to the back,. Pain is aggravated by eating
fatty foods and consuming alcohol.
2. Weight loss, with nausea and vomiting.
3. generalized jaundice .
4. Inspection of stools may reveal steatorrhea (sign of
chronic pancreatitis).
5. Abdominal palpation: tenderness and rigidity.

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Diagnostic tests:
1. Increase serum amylase and lipase levels (diagnostic
hallmark that confirms pancreatitis).
2. Supportive laboratory studies:
1. ↑ WBC and serum bilirubin level
2. Stools contain elevated lipid and trypsin levels.
3. Abdominal and chest X-rays: differentiate
pancreatitis from other diseases that cause similar
symptoms and detect pleural effusions.
4. Computed tomography scan and ultrasonography: ↑
pancreatic diameter and identify pancreatic cysts.

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Complications:
1. Diabetes mellitus may occur.
2. Respiratory complications: pleural effusion and
pneumonia
3. GI: paralytic ileus and GI bleeding.
4. Pancreatic abscess.

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Treatment:
The goals of treatment are to:
1. Maintain circulation and fluid volume
2. Relief pain
3. Decrease pancreatic secretion.
In acute pancreatitis:
1. NGT is usually to decrease gastric distention
and ↓ pancreatic secretions.
2. Give medications

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 If biliary tract obstruction, a laparotomy may
be required.
 For chronic pancreatitis: No surgery.
 Relieve abdominal pain
 Treatments for diabetes mellitus.
 Pancreatic enzyme replacement.
 Surgical drainage is required for an abscess.

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Nursing interventions:
1. Administer analgesics as ordered.
2. Maintain the NG tube for drainage or
suctioning.
3. Restrict the patient to bed rest, comfortable
position, such as Fowler's position.
4. Strict intake and output measurement: at least
output must 30 ml/ h.
5. Provide I.V. fluids and parenteral nutrition as
ordered.
6. Prepare the patient for surgery
(Pancreatectomy) if ordered.

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7-Weigh the patient daily.
8-Teach patient to watch for and report any of
the following S&S: fatty, frothy, foul-
smelling stools; abdominal distention, and
cramping

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Cholecystitis and Cholelithiasis
Definitions:
Cholelithiasis is the presence of gallstones or
calculi (concentration of mineral salts) in the
gallbladder.
Cholecystitis is an inflammation of the
gallbladder. It may caused by cholelithiasis.

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Causes: The exact cause of the formation of the Cholelithiasis is
not known.
Signs and symptoms:
1. May produce no symptoms (even when X-rays reveal
gallstones).
2. Classic gallbladder attack:
1. Sudden onset of severe steady or aching pain (biliary colic)
2. Attack followed eating a fatty meal or a large meal after fasting for an
extended time.
3. Nausea, vomiting, and chills; a low-grade fever, indigestion,
4. Abdominal distension
5. Jaundice of the skin, sclera, and oral mucous membranes
6. Dark-colored urine and clay-colored stools.
7. Tenderness over the gallbladder (increased on inspiration)

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Diagnostic tests:
1. Plain abdominal X-rays.
2. Ultrasound is mainly used for diagnosis of the
gallbladder gallstones.
Management:
A. Medical:
A nasogastric tube may also be inserted to relieve
vomiting.
B. Surgical:
1. Cholecystectomy (surgical removal of the gallbladder) or
laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

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C. Pharmacological:
1. Cholestyramine (for severe itching from
accumulation of bile salts in the Skin).
2. Pain medication, anticholinergics (relax smooth
muscles), I.V. fluids and I.V. antibiotic therapy, and
antiemetics.
D. Diet:
1. Low-fat diet with replacement of the fat-soluble vitamins
A, D, E, and K and administration of bile salts to facilitate
digestion and vitamin absorption.
2. Clients may be NPO for diagnostics tests, treatment and
for more observation and investigations.
3. May be on clear liquid diet.

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 Nursing interventions:
1. Provide a low-fat diet or Keep client NPO or on a
clear liquid diet as ordered.
2. Replace vitamins A, D, E, and K as ordered.
3. Administer medications as ordered.
4. Monitor NG tube to decompress the abdomen as
ordered.
5. Observe for jaundice and bile flow obstruction.
6. Assess vital signs and monitor intake and output
for signs of a fluid deficit.
7. Prepare the patient for surgery.

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Hepatitis
is a chronic or acute inflammation of the hepatic (liver).
Causes:
A. viruses: most common.
1. Type A: is highly infectious and is usually transmitted by the
fecal- oral route (ingestion of contaminated food, milk, or
water). It may also be transmitted parenterally.
2. Type B hepatitis: transmitted by the direct exchange of
contaminated blood, contact with contaminated human
secretions and feces, and perinatal transmission.
3. Type C (non-A, non-B hepatitis.): transmitted through blood
transfusions and by needle sharing among I.V. drug users.
4. Type D, E, and G.
B. nonviral hepatitis: bacteria, drugs, alcohol abuse, or other
toxic substances.

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Signs and symptoms: S&S as related to the stages:
1. Prodromal stage:
1. Fatigue and generalized malaise.
2. Anorexia and nausea with vomiting.
3. Mild weight loss.
4. High temperature: 37.8° to 38.9° C.
5. Dark-colored urine and clay-colored stools.
2. Clinical jaundice stage:
1. Pruritus.
2. Abdominal pain or tenderness
3. Indigestion.
4. Anorexia
5. Jaundice (last for 1 to 2 weeks).
6. Enlarge and tender liver.
7. Ascites
3. Recovery stage (from 2 to 12 Weeks): most symptoms are
decreasing or absent, decrease in liver enlargement.

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Diagnostic tests
A. Liver function studies:
1. Liver enzymes increased.
2. Prothrombin time is prolonged.
3. Liver biopsy.

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Complications:
1. Serum sickness: arthralgia or arthritis, rash, and misdiagnosis
of hepatitis B as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus erythematosus.
2. Liver cancer (hep B or C).
3. Chronic active hepatitis and cirrhosis.

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Treatment:
1. Hepatitis B globulin is given to individuals exposed to blood
or body secretions of infected individuals (effective but
expensive).
2. Rest and eating small, high -calorie, high-protein meals
(protein should be reduced if signs of precoma (lethargy,
confusion, or mental changes-develop).
3. Decrease fat intake.
4. Vitamin K may be ordered if clotting time is prolonged.
5. Vitamin C for healing.
6. Vitamin B complex: to help client absorb fat-soluble
vitamins.
Prevention:
1. Hepatitis vaccine.
2. Use of precautions.

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Nursing interventions
1. Use standard precautions to prevent disease transmission (as well as
visitors).
2. Provide rest periods throughout the day.
3. Provide prescribed diet (determine client food preferences).
4. Observe the patient for desired and adverse effects of medications.
5. Record the patient's weight daily and intake and output records.
6. Watch for signs of complications (changes in level of consciousness,
ascites, edema, dehydration, respiratory problems).
7. Explain all necessary diagnostic tests.
8. Investigate the patient's history for the source of transmission.
9. Be sure to ask about alcohol consumption, patient's employment, and for
possible exposure to toxic chemicals (carbon tetrachloride) → nonviral
hepatitis.
10. Report all cases of hepatitis to health officials