The document discusses the human skeletal system and its various components. It describes the 206 bones that make up the axial skeleton (80 bones) and appendicular skeleton (126 bones). Key bones are outlined, including the skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, clavicles, scapulae, bones of the upper and lower limbs, and pelvis. Joints and ligaments are also discussed. Muscles involved in walking are summarized. Muscular dystrophy and arthritis are briefly explained.

3. 1. Support internal organs, protect internal
structure
2. Move from place to place
3. Cuticle; covers the surface body
4. Waxy -to prevent water loss
5. Joint- thin , flexible
6. Non-living structure, incapable of growth
7. Ecydisis- to shed of the old skeleton

4. 1. vertebrates
2. Rigid framework – bone, cartilage-muscle
attachment
3. functions:
i. maintain body shape
ii. Supporting –soft body tissues
iii. Protecting internal organs- injury

5. 1. internal watery fluid within the confined
spaces
2. under pressure, surrounded muscle
3. liquid cannot escape- skeleton; cannot
compressed
4. soft-walled structure: rigid; muscle act
against it

7. The human skeleton

8. Skull
1. 22 bones ; rest on top of the vertebral column
2. consists of:
i. cranial bones- enclose and protect the brain
ii. Facial bones: protect and provide support for
entrance of respiratory and digestive system
iii. Bones held together by immovable joints-
suture
3. jaw- freely movable bone

9. 1. thorax : thoracic cage
2. thoracic cage:
i. ribs
ii. Sternum
3. function: encloses and protects organs in
thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity
4. twelve pairs –ribs ; make side of the thoracic
cavity
5. sternum/breastbone- flat, narrow bone
located-the centre of anterior thoracic wall

10. 1. the spine/ backbone
2. a series of vertebrae
3. functions:
i. encloses and protects spinal cord
ii. A point of attachments-ribs, pelvic girdle,
muscles of the back
4. 33 vertebrae:
i. 7 cervical vertebrae
ii. 12 thoracic vertebrae
iii. 5 lumbar vertebrae
iv. 5 sacral vertebrae (sacrum)
v. 4 caudal vertebrae (coccyx)

11. 5. cervical, thoracic and lumbar: movable
6. sacrum, coccyx: are not movable
7. intervertebral disc:
i. various movements of vertebral column
ii. Absorb vertical shock
iii. Made of cartilage

12. 1. transverse foramen – blood vessels and
nerves pass
2. the first two are slightly different
The first cervical vertebrae-atlas
The second cervical vertebrae- axis
Thoracic vertebrae
1. spinous processes – long and directed
downwards
2. spinous processes and transverse processes
a- points of attachment for muscles and
ligaments

16. 1. largest and strongest vertebrae
2. processes- short, thick
3. large centrums – bear the weight of the lower
back
Sarcum and coccyx
1. triangular bones
2. fusion of 5 bones
coccyx
1. triangular bones
2. fusion of 4 bones

18. The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions:
1) Pectoral Girdles (4 bones) - Left and right Clavicle (2) and
Scapula (2).
2) Arm and Forearm (6 bones) - Left and right Humerus (2)
(Arm), Ulna (2) and Radius (2) (Fore Arm).
3) Hands (58 bones) - Left and right Carpal (16) (wrist),
Metacarpal (10), Proximal phalanges (10), Middle phalanges
(8), distal phalanges (10), and sesamoid (4).
4) Pelvis (2 bones) - Left and right os coxae (2) (ilium).
5) Thigh and leg (8 bones) - Femur (2) (thigh), Tibia (2),
patella (2) (knee), and Fibula (2) (leg).
6) Feet (56 bones) - Tarsals (14) (ankle), Metatarsals (10),
Proximal phalanges (10), middle phalanges (8), distal
phalanges (10), and sesamoid (4).

19. 1. The appendicular skeleton is composed of
126 bones in the human body.
2. The word appendicular is the adjective of the
noun appendage which itself means a part that
is joined to something larger.
3. Functionally it is involved in locomotion
(Lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and
manipulation of objects in the environment
(Upper limbs).

20. The appendicular skeleton of
126 bones and the axial
skeleton of 80 bones together
form the complete skeleton of
206 bones in the human body.

21. 1. The appendicular skeleton
- pectoral girdle
-upper limbs
-pelvic girdle
-lower limbs
2. Pectoral girdle
- clavicle - long, slender S-shaped bone,
- horizontally above the first rib
- scapula – large, flat, triangular bone,
- the posterior of the thorax

22. 1. two hip bones
2. provides a strong, stable support for the
vertebral column
3. hip bones joined at pubic symphysis
Upper limb
1. humerus- the longest, largest bone of upper
limb
2. articulates with
-scapula- shoulder
- ulna and radius- elbow

23. - carpus or wrist:
eight bones called carpals
- metacarpus or palm
five bones called metacarpals
- phalanges : bones of the fingers
- thumb- 2 phalanges
– others -3 phalanges
-

26. Femur
- longest, heaviest, strongest bond
- head: a ball-and-socket joint with the hip bone
- the other end- a hinge joint with tibia
Patella
- kneecap, triangular bone
- protects the knee joint
Tibia- bears the weight of the body
Fibula- smaller than tibia
Tarsus- ankle : 7 bones
Metatarsus- 5 bones: metatarsals
Phalanges- similar with hand

27. 1. Bones- rigid, can’t bend
2. connective tissue- holding bones
3. joint – 2 or more bones meet
4. ligaments- tough sheets of elastic fibres
- held bones
- allow bones move
- prevent dislocation
5. Synovial joint- cavity filled with fluid
- freely movable

29. Types of joint
1. Hinge joint
- examples; knee joint
- Elbows, finger bones, toe bones
- One plane
2. ball-and-socket joint
- Shoulder joint, hip joint
- Rotational movement
- Swinging of arms, legs in a circular motion

32. 1. tough, strong inelastic strands of dnse
connective tissue
2. join skeletal muscles to the bones

42. The muscles involved in walking
1. The calf muscles contracts and
raises the heel.
2. It exerts a forward thrust, by
pushing the ball of the foot against
the ground.
3. The hamstring muscle contracts to
pull the femur (the thigh) back and
bends the knee. The leg is raised.

43. The muscles involved in walking

44. The muscles involved in walking
4. As the right foot loses contact with
the ground, the weight of the body
is now supported by the the left leg
which is still in contact with the
ground.
5. The quadriceps muscle contracts,
pulls the femur forward and
extends the leg.

45. The muscles involved in walking
6. When the extension of the leg is
completed, the foot then regains
contact with the ground with the
heel touching the ground first. The
weight of body is now supported
on the right leg.
7. The whole sequence is repeated
with the left leg.

47. Muscle cramp

48. Muscle cramps?
Weak muscles are more likely to
get overexerted when
exercising and this overexertion
depletes the muscle of oxygen.
Without oxygen, waste product
builds up in the muscle causing
the fibers to spasm and shorten
the muscle.

49. Dehydration
Dehydration is a factor too. When
you sweat you lose fluids, salt and
minerals, and electrolytes.
Electrolytes are the minerals:
calcium, magnesium and potassium
which your muscles need to
function. So drink before you are
thirsty to avoid dehydration or try
a sports drink that contains
electrolytes.

50. Treatment for muscle cramps
When you do cramp up you should
stop doing whatever activity
triggered the cramp and gently
stretch and massage the area.
If the area is really painful you
can try icing it too. But to add
to the mystery of cramping,
some people find heat helps
more than ice.

52. Muscular dystrophy

54. Causes?
a problem known as a mutation —
causes DMD. In 1987, the protein
associated with this gene was
identified and named dystrophin.

55. What are Duchenne and Becker
Muscular Dystrophies?
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD)
was first described by the French
neurologist Guillaume Benjamin
Amand Duchenne in the 1860s.
Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is
named after the German doctor
Peter Emil Becker, who first
described this variant of DMD in the
1950s.

56. In DMD, boys begin to show
signs of muscle weakness as
early as age 3. The disease
gradually weakens the skeletal,
or voluntary, muscles, those in
the arms, legs and trunk. By the
early teens or even earlier, the
boy’s heart and respiratory
muscles also may be affected.

58. Muscular dystrophy

59. Osteoporosis - Disease
characterized by low bone mass
and structural deterioration of
bone tissue

60. Osteoporosis

66. Arthritis
 Rheumatoid Arthritis - Chronic desease
mainly characterized by inflamation of the
lining of the joints; can lead to long term
joint damage resulting in chronic pain, loss
of function, and disability
 Osteoarthritis - Most common form of
arthritis; is characterized by the breakdown
of joint cartilage and may affect any joint in
the body

67. Psoriatic Arthritis - Swelling and pain
in the joints surrounding the spine
Gout - Systemic disease caused by the
buildup of uric acid in the joints

68. Arthritis

71. Arthititis

75. Rheumatoid Arthritis in the Knee Joint

78. Locomotion in an earthworm

88. 1. muscles-inner surface of leg
2. flexor and extensor muscle contract
alternately
3. six legs attached to the thorax
4. claws- grip surfaces
5. adhesive pad between claws – used on
slippery surfaces

89. Fish

99. 1 Strong and big chest muscle – for uplift and
propulsion.
2 Wings are wide – enables it to stay in
the air better.
3 Wing acts as an aerofoil.- generates a
lifting force.
4 Body of the bird is streamline- reduces
air resistance.
5 Bones – small and spongy, some are
hollow- makes the body light,
6 Feathers – waxy and waterproof .

107. Aquatic plants : Lotus ( Nelumbium sp )

109. Eichhornia
crassipes

114. Terrestial plants

120. 1. turgidity – parenchyma cell
2. collenchyma cell – cell wall – cellulose ,
pectin.
woody plants
1. sclerenchyma tissue- Fibre,
sclereids
External support – buttress roots
-creepers, vines – other trees- tendrils
and thorns

121. Posture - the manner in which the
body is held at rest by muscle attached
to the skeleton.
Good posture – the body is held in
correct position ( or well balanced
position ) when standing, sitting, lying
down or in motion .

122. Bad posture
1. bent backbone, sunken chest ,
protruding abdomen
2. organs such as the heart and the lungs
in the chest cavity are squeezed and
cramped
3. person cannot work properly.
4. hinders proper breathing, less oxygen is
inhaled – insufficient oxygen for all
activities
5. prevents free circulation of blood.