Influenza Is Caused By An RNA Virus From The...

Influenza is caused by an RNA virus from the...
Influenza is caused by an RNA virus from the Orthomyxoviridae family (that consists of the genera influenza A, B, and C). Human influenza A and B
viruses cause seasonal epidemics almost each winter within the United States. Influenza type B infects humans only, therefore it is unable of
undergoing a mutation. Pandemics are caused solely by influenza A strains. The emergence of a new and completely different influenza virus to infect
people will cause an influenza pandemic. Influenza kind C infections cause a mild respiratory illness and aren't thought to cause epidemics (Duncan,
2013).
The influenza virus is transmitted from human to human mainly by droplet, although there are cases of animal to human transmission. The incubation ...
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I would explain to Debbie that the Flu vaccine cause antibodies to develop in the body within 2 weeks after vaccination. These antibodies provide
protection against infection with the viruses that are in the vaccine, but there is always a small chance of her getting it because there might be a new
strain that can develop every year (Unknown, 2013). Also, there is a benefit of getting the vaccine because even if the viruses (her antibodies and the
strain going around in the facility) are not closely matched; the vaccine can still defend her and prevent flu–related complications (this is referred to as
cross–protection) against different influenza viruses (CDC, 2013).
b. The nurse must also consider the older adult population that is affected in this situation. Why?
It's estimated that 90% of seasonal influenza–related deaths and more than 60% of seasonal influenza–related hospitalizations within the United States
every year occur in people 65 years and older (Unknown, 2013).
Elderly patients residing in long–term care facilities are vulnerable to influenza outbreaks which might cause widespread illness with a high fatality
rate. To fight off outbreaks, all long–term care facility residents and health care personnel must be vaccinated against
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Polio Epidemics
The research topic that I choose was Epidemics past and Present. Epidemics are large events that have left a scar in the medical part of history.
Epidemic from a French proverb says that Epidemics Come With Wings and slowly limp away. This is true because Epidemics hit with all their force
killing a lot of people, then slowly leave but not permanently. They still manage to come back stronger then when they first hit. Epidemics are not
something new they have been around for thousands of years. And just as this world and the humans who inhabit it Epidemics evolve.
The first Epidemic was discovered in 1918. Influenza in summers shifts in late 1900's to spring and winter, with Smallpox already a killer disease. The
Epidemic returned in force in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The virus usually enters the environment in the feces of someone who is infected. In areas with poor sanitation, the virus easily spreads through the
fecal–oral route, via contaminated water or food. A lot of the polio epidemics were unknown before the 20th century. Paralytic polio Epidemics
began to appear in Europe and the United States around 1900. First report of multiple polio cases was published in 1843 and described an 1841
outbreak in Louisiana. There is a gap of fifty years before the next epidemic later polio began to make itself noticeable by having, 26 cases in
Boston in 1823, 132 cases with 18 deaths in Vermont, approximately 2,500 cases in New York City. On Saturday, June 17, 1916 an official
announcement of the existence of an epidemic polio infection was made in New York. On this year there were only 27,000 cases, 6,000 deaths in
the U.S, and over 2,000 deaths in New York alone. Thanks to Jonas Salk on July 2, 1952 he first introduced his "killed virus" he belived that this was
going to end polio so he told people that he was going to test it on his wife and children. According to Dr. Thomas Francis Thevaccine on April 12,
1955 he declared the vaccine safe and effective. The vaccines had proven to be 80 to 90% effective on the basis of results in 11 states. Overall, the
vaccine was administered to over 440,000 children in 44

Cholera And The Plague Epidemic Analysis
Modern usage of 'epidemic' to politicise or instil with "urgency" an agenda has made the term too broad to define, but this quasi–metaphorical use of
the word represents a new diversity in its definition. Epidemics create a window from which the social historian has access to both the "complexities of
human nature" and the "political arenas that control and disseminate information": an insight to political, cultural, religious and social life that in other
circumstances may elude the chroniclers of the past. There is no categorical, empirical or quantifiable rule in defining epidemics; instead they are
subject to a series of accepted truisms – that they have both a start and an end, that they elicit large social response, that they fragment... Show more
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There has been a tendency to study epidemics with harsher symptoms and higher chances of death under the assumption that these fragment society
and culture more than "mild" epidemics like influenza. The main example of this would be the countless studies of Cholera and the Plague, the former
of which took the lives of fifty per–cent of its victims with intense rapidity (in nineteenth–century Britain: "healthy in the morning, dead in the
evening"), the latter imposing a mortality rate as high as forty seven per–cent (in the case of Newcastle 1636). However, the modern usages of the word
do not always fit into this model. The epidemic of obesity for example is a medical topic, which has been termed an epidemic by using current social
dissatisfaction as much as effect on mortality. Rosenberg deconstructs 'disease' stating that it is a "specific repertoire of verbal constructs reflecting
medicine's intellectual and institutional history", which would accept that obesity is a disease. His statement that an epidemic is an event, not a
trend, in need of a common dramaturgy, a beginning and an end, and a "mobilisation of community to reaffirm social values", does not allow for
the classification of obesity as an epidemic. Here, it seems that epidemic has been motivated by society rather than by a medical profession, making
a definition yet more abstract; both Hansen on homosexuality and MacDonald on suicide show that the "political, religious, social and cultural"
setting can cause a medicalisation of a behavioural issue. This in turn can expand the ways in which we use the term epidemic: the medicalisation of
homosexuality and suicide share themes common in definitions of epidemics: both elicit a social response, both are used to advance a political
agenda, "reveal areas of the social fabric which do not appear clearly in everyday life", and both have

Influenza Virus: Epidemics And Pandemics
Influenza virus has caused serious respiratory illness and death over the past centuries. Epidemics and pandemics due to Influenza virus were known to
cause morbidity and mortality in humans and other animals. Pandemics have been documented since the 16th century (WHO, 2005) and in the last
400 years, at least 31 pandemics have been recorded (Lazzari and Stohr, 2004). Influenza virus belongs to the family Orthomyxoviridae, which is
characterized by a segmented, minus–stranded RNA genome. Influenza viruses are irregular, spherical (80–120 nm diameter) or filamentous structures
and their surfaces are studded with rod–shaped hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) spikes (Betts, 1995). Influenza viruses are of three types
A, B, and C. The typing

Influenza Epidemic Essay
"The Lord will strike with wasting disease, with fever and inflammation, with scorching heat and drought, with blight and mildew, which will plague
until death" (Deuteronomy 28:22). At the end of World War I, when a mystery Spanish Flu or the Great Pandemic death unfolds, before the outbreak is
over, 500 million or one–third of the world's population becomes ill and about 20–30 million parish, making it one of the worst pandemics since the
writing of the earth's history . The effect of the influenza epidemic is so severe that the average life span decreases by 10 years. Not only this, as World
War I, delivers an unequal reason for being, the Spanish Flu brings an equal mortality to young adults between the ages of 20 and 40 . Because the
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During these Tribulations, when a quarter of the earth is gone after the turn of the century, the human race looks to the government to relieve them.
For this, because the origins of this influenza variant are not precisely known and most influenza pandemics develop in the tropics of Asia then
spread from there to the rest of the world, many believe it originates in China, but the name of Spanish Flu comes from the early affliction and large
mortalities in Spain and not Asia. Scientifically, whatever gives the 1918 virus the power to generate rapidly, leaves them in a question about why a
person who comes down with the mild flu in the beginning of 1918, can also come down with a more difficult flu the middle of 1919 that can bring
death. One thinks that the experience will drive people to their knees in repentance to God. Instead, people find the torments of hell as a justification to
blame the Scientific Jews. The fact that the Pandemic introduces darkness to the citizens of the earth, many do not know why these scientists do not
take into consideration the Trench fever, mustard gas and the fleas in the Trenches for the rapid increase when determining how the virus spreads.
While the combination seems obvious to many veterans, the governments do not proclaim the German warfare justification for such a tragedy that
breeds disease and pestilence. Whatever the enemy, it is apparent that God uses all on the earth to concern all when trying to save

The Influenza Epidemic
Throughout history, plagues have been feared and dreaded. As we have had scientific advancements and we attempt to control the impact of viruses on
humanity we find that they continue to evolve with us. We are constantly trying to stay ahead of the next illness. The Center for Disease Control states
that, "an epidemic refers to an increase, often sudden, in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in that population in that
area" (Lesson 1). An epidemic turns into a pandemic when the epidemic travels into several different countries, usually impacting a larger number of
people (Lesson 1). Epidemics have always been around, but now with vaccines people tend to not worry about them. As a country we need to make
sure people ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Many now ignore the fact diseases can still affect us, even though currently since so many people travel it causes us to be more susceptible than
ever. Countries trade now more than ever, causing the chance for diseases to spread faster than ever. Since an epidemic might be around the next
bend, we need to start putting a plan into place so we can be ready when the next epidemic comes.A big worry of Tyler Kokjohn and Cooper
Kimbal, the next epidemic will again be just like that common flu that we experience every year. The worry is that the response time will not be
quick enough because people will just suspect that it is the yearly flu. A part that goes into saving lives is how health organizations respond, in order
to prevent deaths they need to respond both quickly and effectively to information that they receive about possible small outbreaks of the disease
(Kokjohn). Professionals have concerns regarding slow response times to epidemic outbreaks. Kokjohn says, "Unfortunately, influenza surveillance is
an especially weak link in the chain of public–health protection. Exactly where, when, and (most important) how quickly and reliably the emergence
of a new flu virus with pandemic potential is recognized will determine whether a vaccine can be produced before the virus spreads across the world.
People and products now traverse the planet with ease, meaning that a future flu pandemic may engulf the world with

Influenza Virus Evolution
Unlike DNA viruses, the RNA influenza virus lacks the proofreading mechanism to self–repair arising errors during its replication. Thus two forms of
genetic variations representing a hallmark feature of influenza viruses. The antigenic drift occurred in influenza type A and influenza type B. The
accumulation of changes in surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, by gene sequence mutations of virus RNA segments causing the
antigenic drift. These mutations cause minor changes in HA and NA antibody–binding sites generating novel strains of influenza virus that responsible
for the seasonal epidemics. As these novel strains are not detectable by host antibodies that were generated against previous strains, they can infect both
vaccinated ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
New influenza virus strain release with a unique combination of HA and NA proteins that causing the pandemics influenza infections among the
population who have no previous antibodies response against these novel antigens. Previous studies have demonstrated levels of genetic diversity
among HCMV within and between hosts. The inter–host diversity is a level of genetic variation observed between hosts while intra–hosts diversity
occurred within a single host. These genetic diversity studies have demonstrated divergence in the sequence of CMV glycoproteins, gB, and gH, using
several assays including PCR–RFLP, DNA sequencing, single strand conformation polymorphism. Currently, the mechanisms of HCMV diversity are
not well understood however some mechanisms were suggested to cause the genetic diversity. In HCMV primary infection, de novo mutations
generated within hosts as a result of high levels of viral replication which lead to intra–hosts diversity. HCMV reinfection leads to repeatedly introduce
the most common divergent sequence to immunocompromised and healthy

1918: The Story Of The Great Influenza Pandemic
The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus That Caused It is a true story of the world's deadliest disease. In
1918, the Great Flu Epidemic felled the young and healthy overnight. It was a plague so deadly that if a similar virus were to strike today, it would
kill more people in a single year than heart disease, cancers, strokes, chronic pulmonary disease, AIDS and Alzheimer's disease combined.
It is estimated that forty million people died as the epidemic raged. Children were left orphaned and families were devastated. As many American
soldiers were killed by the 1918 flu as were killed in battle during World War I. No area of the globe was safe. Eskimos living in remote outposts were
died in such numbers that entire villages were wiped out. Between 20 million and 100 million people died in the 1918 flu pandemic, but for years
afterward this plague was almost completely forgotten. Histories and even medical texts rarely mention it. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It traveled across the United States in weeks, the globe in only a few months, and it could have a rapid course, progressing from early symptoms to
death in a day. The epidemic had two other crucial characteristics. It did not respect the epidemiologic rules taught byinfluenza outbreaks ignoring risk
factors such as age and localized outbreaks. Its symptoms were gruesome: Your face turns a dark brownish purple. You start to cough up blood. Your
feet turn black. A blood–tinged saliva bubbles out of your mouth. You die––by drowning. It was a mystery with no known origin, no known etiology,
and no treatment. From its extraordinary ability to reach into everyday life in every nation to the special trains to carry away the dead, the epidemic is
a story of mythic proportions. Along with these colossal attributes, it is also given, in popular thought, the power of

Essay on The Flu Epidemic F 1918
Walking down any given street in the year 1918 between the months of June and December, one would take notice of coffins lining the sidewalks.
Nobody was on the streets, and dead bodies were stuffed into every available space. The Flu Epidemic of 1918 not only was the most devastating event
of the twentieth century, but propelled the United States to search for a vaccine that has not yet been found, causing concern that the flu will strike again.
Influenza has been around almost as long as people have walked the earth. Its roots draw back as far as 412 B.C., when a man named Hippocrates
wrote of an uncontrollable outbreak of a disease that closely resembles influenza. This pandemic devastated an entire ... Show more content on
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On August 12, 1918, Mrs. Olsen became the first person to die of influenza, beginning the killing streak that would make influenza the number one
killer (Persico 30). It spread like wildfire, with one person falling ill, followed by another, 107 by afternoon, 522 by the end of the week, and 1,127
suffering with 46 dead five weeks later. Nevertheless, these occurred before influenza was discovered, and pneumonia was blamed for deaths (Persico
28).
There have been about 20 million reported deaths due to the influenza of 1918. The doctors were too overwhelmed by the many cases they had to care
for, which brought about many unreported cases, causing this minuscule number. One fateful day in October 759 people died in Philadelphia (Kolata
19–20). The epidemic spread so far so fast that public officials became frantic looking for ways to fend off the virus. Arrests were made for spitting
and coughing, public meetings were prohibited, and a series of medical procedures were all attempts to prevent the virus from entering victims' lungs
(Persico 83).
This new influenza baffled researchers and doctors everywhere. Up to this point, all viral diseases has spread prominently throughout heavily
populated areas and into the lungs of the very young, very old, or sickly. On the contrary, the Influenza of 1918 swept through the Midwest and preyed
on the

Snow's Day In London Chapter Summary
The story takes place during an epidemic outbreak that spread rapidly as well as vigorously. Steven Johnson begins the book in London during the
nineteenth century (1854). The book discusses the contaminated conditions in England. More than two million people were living within a 10 mile
radius. In particular, he starts by painting a picture of the lower class. He calls them rag–gatherers, deredgermen, bone–pickers, myud–larks, night soil
men, and more. The main character in the story is a man named Dr. John Snow. While everyone is convinced that people are dying because of the
terrible smell, Snow spends his time trying to prove that the smell isn't what's killed people. He didn't know it at first, but research and proof
supporting his research proved time and time again that it was a bigger deal than smell. In his book, Johnson says,"Great breakthroughs are closer to
what happens in a floodplain: a dozen separate tributaries converge, and the rising waters lift the genius high enough that he or she can see around the
conceptual obstructions of the age." (pg. 149). His belief was that cholera, a disease commonly spread through water is what's causing all the deaths.
Johnson gives the reader a view of Snow's day to day efforts of proving himself. And although, Dr. Snow played a colossal part in this story, Reverend
Henry Whitehead, whose expanded knowledge of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of its biggest strength was the way the author used his great sense of imagery to create depictions of life in 1854. The book had many
descriptions for the places and people. And the author never failed to mention the stench in the city. Another strength that the book had was that it tied
in many genres. Science, mystery, and it included innovation as well. The Ghost Map tells a story of a very innovative time. Dr. Snow and Reverend
Whitehead were able to work together to identify a disease and its source without having any modern

The Epidemic Of Influenza Vaccine
Each year, there is an estimated 36,000 deaths associated with influenza, about 1,250 from the United States. Influenza (also known as the flu) is a
highly contagious respiratory illness that attacks the upper respiratory tract. In some cases, it can cause a mild to severe illness, but in other in others it
can lead to death. Many try to eliminate getting the flu at all by getting an influenza vaccine. The influenza vaccine has produced controversy all over
the United States, as some say it is highly dangerous, while most medical professionals strongly advise it. Although it may be the greatest chance of
not catching influenza, it can come with serious complications and side effects that can damage or even kill a person. The current debate on the topic
questions whether the vaccine is safe, if it's necessary, and if it actually works. Influenza usually spreads around the United States every winter,
usually between October and May. It is characterized by a sudden onset of a high fever, headache, cough, sore throat, muscle or body aches, runny or
stuffy nose, and fatigue. Most people recover within one to two weeks without requiring any medical treatment. Unlike a cold, the flu comes on more
suddenly and usually lasts longer. Most people can get sick with influenza several times during their lives. Flu viruses are always changing and
mutating. After about two weeks, the flu vaccine itself causes antibodies to develop in the body. Those antibodies provide protection against

Viral Infection: Influenza or Flu Essay
Influenza or "flu" is a rather contagious viral infection that infects the respiratory tract. Fever, cough, muscle aches, fatigue, rhinorrhea, and sore throat
are the symptoms commonly associated with influenza virus. Individuals infected with influenza normally experience mild illness and recover within
two weeks. However, specific groups, such as the elderly, young children, and individuals with co–morbidities, appear more susceptible to severe
illness as well as mortality due to influenza related complications. H1N1, a causative agent of influenza was identified in spring of 2009.
Communication of H1N1 and seasonal influenza occur through droplets created when individuals with the illness cough, sneeze, or talk. Indications of
H1N1 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Conclusions demonstrating increases in earlier vaccination is more cost–effective and successful in the prevention of influenza associated mortality is
perhaps most essential for regions experiencing rapid growth of the virus (Khazeni, Hutton, Garber, Hupert, & Owens, 2009). Since the occurrence of
the pandemic, great emphasis has been placed on the importance of influenza vaccination and its role in preventing and slowing transmission of the
virus. The three types of influenza viruses that exist to date include A, B, and C viruses. Seasonal epidemics within the human population are caused
by A and B viruses. In the United States, epidemics of this sort occur nearly every winter. Respiratory illness that is generally mild can be attributed to
influenza type C and is not responsible for epidemics. Seasonal epidemics due to influenza A can lead to extensive morbidity in addition to mortality.
Additionally, type A viruses have an exceptional ability to demonstrate modifications in mutation plus lesser antigenic transformations sporadically.
These changes can arise in either one or both of the proteins, hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N), located on the exterior of the influenza A virus.
The presentation of viruses proven to be different from those previously identified in which established immunity is no longer of effect is the outcome
of antigenic drift. This process is a significant contributor to the trend of seasonal epidemics which develop annually and is

Background Guide Of World Health Organization
CMUNS 2015
Ou Jinzhou Chongqing Bashu secondary school
Guo fangzhu Chongqing Foreign Language School
Li kexin Chongqing Foreign Language School
2015 Chongqing Seniors Model United Nations Committee
2015 Cmuns World Health Organization
Background guide of World Health Organization
2012–2015 CMUNS Committee. All rights reserved
Table of contents Welcome letter from the Secretary–General
Welcome letter from the chair
History of the committee
2. About the topic
2.1 A brief scan of the topic
1.UN Millennium Development Goals
2.2 Case
Global Epidemic disease
1.Retrospect of the epidemic disease Case1 Aids 1.Aids
2.The cause of Aids and Aids' human factor
3.The distributing of aids
Suggestions for Further Research
Relevant UN Action Case2 Ebola
1.Statement of Ebola
2.Protests

3.Transmission
4.Factors of losing control Position Paper Requirements

The Worldwide Influenza Epidemic in the US
The Worldwide Influenza Epidemic in the U.S.
"The 1918 has gone: a year momentous as the termination of the most cruel war in the annals of the human race; a year which marked, the end at least
for a time, of man's destruction of man; unfortunately a year in which developed a most fatal infectious disease causing the death of hundreds of
thousands of human beings. Medical science for four and one–half years devoted itself to putting men on the firing line and keeping them there. Now it
must turn with its whole might to combating the greatest enemy of all––infectious disease (Billings, 2005)." The influenza in 1919 was much bigger
than a cold. In the two years that this disease swept the world one fifth of the population was infected. The flu was most deadly for people ages 20 to
40. This pattern of death was unusual for influenza which usually killed the elderly and young children. It infected 28% of all Americans. An estimated
675,000 Americans died of influenza during this pandemic, about ten times as many as in World War 1. Of the U.S. soldiers who died in Europe, half
of them were killed by the influenza virus and not to the enemy. An estimated 43,000 soldiers who were sent for WWI died of influenza. The
worldwide influenza epidemic adversely affected the U.S., both in the states and the soldiers at war. Subsequently, in the lack of medicine, lack of
skilled doctors, and the lack of soldier preparation.
The influenza pandemic circled the globe. Most of humanity felt

The Epidemic Of Influenza And Influenza
People are dying every second to a variety of reasons, some that could be prevented others where that is not the case. However, experts agree that
influenza and influenza related deaths could be significantly prevented if people took the influenza vaccine annually. The influenza virus is a deadly
virus that has been killing people since the 1900s; in 1918 the first recorded epidemic of a strain of influenza known as the Spanish flu killed
approximately 50 million people ("Pandemic Flu History"). Because people did not know what the virus was or how to fight against it, it spread very
fast. However, after the vaccine was made, later epidemics such as the 1957, 1968, and 2009 epidemics were not as fatal, killing approximately one
million people worldwide. Vaccines played a large role in human history in fighting and preventing diseases from annihilating human beings. This
paper will discuss the economic aspects of whether it should be mandatory for hospital health care workers to take the flu vaccine. Paula Sullivan, a
seasoned nurse practitioner, discusses how influenza is an infectious disease that takes place "in temperate regions around the world" which results in
approximately the death of 500,000 people "annually" worldwide; 226,000 people get hospitalized and 36,000 die from influenza annually in the
United States alone (Sullivan). Most of the people who die from the influenza virus are aged 65 years or older and that is usually because other
diseases are

Case Module 1: Pediatric Flu
Case #1/Pediatric Flu Case Module 1
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2013) national healthcare disparities report for 2010, influenza and pneumonia are
ranked within the top ten major causes of death in the United States. The influenza viruses that will be discussed throughout this case study include the
human influenza viruses: A and B. These viruses are responsible for seasonal epidemics during the fall and winter around the globe in temperate
environments. Historically influenza outbreaks have had a seasonal distribution and characteristic time course although according to the CDC (2017)
factors influencing the extent and severity of an outbreak are less clear. Generally, there are two or three different influenza strains typically circulating
concurrently in any given ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this case study, the history of present illness and associated signs and symptoms as well as confirmation of positive exposure to influenza warrants
considering antiviral therapy. Antiviral medications are clinically most beneficial when started as close to illness onset as possible. According to
current guidelines published by the AAP (2016) for the current influenza season oral oseltamivir remains the antiviral drug of choice for the
management of influenza infections. Benefits with the greatest effect on outcome should occur with treatment initiated within 48 hours of illness onset
but is not contraindicated if initiated later in the illness. Review of the case study provides no rationale not to consider prescribing antiviral therapy.
Certainly, it is well known that immunization is the most important public health measure for the prevention of influenza infection, however, antiviral
drugs also may be used for prevention in high–risk patients in certain

Influenza And The Elderly : Epidemic
Influenza and the Elderly
The last few days of summer are upon us, the leaves are beginning to change and it is once again fall in East Tennessee. While many are beginning
to enjoy a relaxing break before the stresses of winter and the holidays, healthcare providers are bracing for the rush. The rush I speak of is that of
doctor's offices which are over run with those complaining of fevers, aches, and chills. Influenza season begins as early as August and can run as long
as in to late March. Those affected by the virus can range from infants to the elderly, but most complications occur in those over 65, including death.
According to the World Health Organization, the number of elderly persons is expected to increase from 600 million currently to over 2 billion
worldwide by 2050. (WHO, 2015) Due to the rapid increase of this age group in the upcoming years, the need to prevent and establish treatment for
illnesses that have the potential to be fatal in this population is a top priority. Greater risks of mortality in those over 65 who contract influenza can be
attributed to several factors including: the elderly's decline in immunity response, the inability of the elderly's body to fully recover from infection, and
finally, the long term complications of influenza among those who are already compromised. Disease Characteristics
Causative Agent and Mode of Transmission
Influenza, commonly referred to as the seasonal flu, is a respiratory infection caused by a virus. Areas

Questions On Epidemiology Paper : Epidemiology
Benchmark Assignment: Epidemiology Paper
Student's Name
Institutional Affiliation
Benchmark Assignment: Epidemiology Paper
There are considerable numbers of various communicable diseases that jeopardize every individual worldwide. Dangerous viruses and pathogen
bacteria, harmful microorganisms and fungus can trigger around 200 infectious diseases, and influenza is a dominative one in this group. This paper will
provide an accurate overview of influenza including clinical descriptions, the determinants of health relatively to the indicated sickness progression.
Simultaneously, the work will represent epidemiological situation relatively to influenza, and community health care actions on this issue. Furthermore,
the contributions of the different organizations and agencies will be available.
Description of Influenza
Influenza is a common, highly contagious, airborne disease that infects the body through the upper respiratory tracks and causes severe intoxication of
the body. It appears as "acute febrile" sickness associated with variable symptoms and signs, "ranging from mild fatigue to respiratory failure and
death" (Nguyen, Bronze & et al, 2016). Typical influenza primarily manifests in fever, aching muscles and joints, frontal or retro–orbital headache, sore
throat, nonproductive dry coughing or other respiratory impairments. Infected people may feel miserable having running nose or nasal congestion,
shivering attack, photosensitivity, burning sense

Influenza Research Paper
Pandemic Influenza
Signs & Symptoms Fever or feeling feverish/chills Cough Sore throat Runny or stuffy nose Muscle or body aches Headaches Vomiting and diarrhea
Testing Influenza testing is gathered to help diagnose an influenza infection and sometimes to help document and determine the presence of specific
types and/or the strains of influenza causing the infections during the flu season. Routinely influenza cases are diagnosed without any form of testing
done by the physician, especially during the absence of the flu season and knowledge the flu virus is evident in the community. Testing is also
performed to monitor flu viruses that may be circulating in an area, the location of outbreaks, to look for new strains of viruses ... Show more content on
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Avian Influenza. (n.d.)
Treatment
The treatment for avian influenza varies based on your signs and symptoms an individual presents with. The Center for Disease Control (CDC)
commends the use of antiviral drugs for the treatment of individual's infected with avian influenza viruses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) has approved a vaccine to protect humans, the vaccine can be used if the current H5N1 virus starts spreading between people in a common area.
Prognosis
The outlook for the bird flu viral infection depends on how intense the infection becomes and on the specifics of each strain. The disease can cause
serious health complications and eventually be fatal for unhealthy individuals.
Preventative Measures
Currently the best way to prevent an infection with avian influenza viruses is to avoid the sources of exposure whenever possible.
Wash your hands often. Disinfection and sanitization. Avoid visits to live
–bird

The Laws And Protective Legislation
LAWS/ PROTECTIVE LEGISLATION
The APHA asked states to pass laws forbidding spitting, coughing and sneezing in public without covering the mouth to prevent the spread of influenza.
Legislation was passed to prevent the use of common cups and required sterilization of eating and drinking utensils. Caregivers were encouraged to
wear gauze masks when caring for patients and advertisements encouraged people wash hands frequently, especially before meals, and avoid sharing
hand towels or eating and drinking with shared utensils. Additional protective measures suggested by the APHA included: Sterilization and disinfection
for bedding and nurses uniforms, gauze hospital masks, paper tissues, and antiseptic hand wash. Pasteurization of milk was ... Show more content on
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The government should have also activated the Red Cross and Colored Red Cross Organizations and coordinated efforts between female aid workers
to help manage childcare, nursing, food and health care at the community level.
As influenza continued to spread, local officials urgently requested the Public Health Service to find more nurses and doctors. In October, Congress
appropriated a million dollars for the Public Health Service. The money enabled the PHS to recruit and pay for additional doctors and nurses. The
existing shortage of doctors and nurses, caused by the war, made it difficult for the PHS to locate and hire qualified practitioners. The virulence of the
disease also meant that many nurses and doctors contracted influenza within days of being hired.Confronted with a shortage of hospital beds, many
local officials ordered that community centers and local schools be transformed into emergency hospitals. In some areas, the lack of doctors meant that
nursing and medical students were drafted to staff these makeshift hospitals." –http://www.flu.gov/pandemic/history/1918/the_pandemic/influenza
/index.html
Poor organized communication and coordination of support efforts affected the spread of the virus and increased mortality rates in most
communities."Before the pandemic erupted to new heights, number of doctors increased from twenty five, to two hundred fifty. Because the death
rates were so high, many people were hesitant about

INFLUENZA Essay
INFLUENZA
A virus called an Orthomyxovirus causes influenza. Often called flu, sometimes–even grippe. It is a very contagious disease, and it infects many parts
of our bodies. This also includes are lungs. A person can get influenza if someone coughs, sneezes, or even talks around you while they are infected.
Influenza is sometimes considered serious in some cases but can be prevented and treated.
When you get the "flu" in the lungs, the lining of the respiratory tract is damaged by becoming swollen and inflamed. But the damage is not always
permanent, and tissue heals within a couple of weeks. It is a respiratory disease, even though it infects the whole body. ... Show more content on
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Some complications these people at high–risk face are sinus and inner ear inflammation as well bacterial pneumonia (yeah, and I'm sure that sounds
real pleasant). Unfortunately, most complications end with bacterial infections. In the end if you don't get treated influenza can be severe and fatal.
People that are at a high risk are ones that have chronic lung disease such as asthma, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, tuberculosis, or cystic fibrosis.
You are also at high risk if you have heart disease, chronic kidney disease or metabolic disorder. Diabetes, severe anemia, and people who have
diseases or having treatments like chemotherapy, which depress immunity. Disease and disorders are not the only reason you can be at risk. If you
reside in a nursing home or are over the age of 65 you are as well at risk. Finally, health care providers should get immunized to protect high–risk
patients.
Anyone can get influenza, especially when an epidemic sweeps through a community. In 1994 over 90 million cases of influenza was reported, not
counting the ones that weren't reported. People who know that they're at high risk should be immunized.
In 1941 it was discovered that influenza can be prevented and treated with a vaccine or shot. The vaccine is made each year so that the vaccine can
contain the virus that is expected that

How Diseases Affects Every Individual Essay
Introduction
Diseases affect every individual. They could have a disease themselves, may know someone or of someone that has one, or the country where they
live could have have faced a disease epidemic. Epidemics, which we have studied in our course, analyze how diseases spread and how outbreaks
affect countless individuals in countless different countries. This topic relates directly to course material as it encompasses many of the situations and
ideas that have been discussed such as, poverty, dying, environment, and social factors and how they relate and coincide with disease. The country you
reside in ultimately dictates the technological advances that you have access to when dealing with stopping the spread of diseases. Epidemics also can
be considered by looking at poverty because non–industrialized countries have a harder time when it comes to dealing with the spread of disease as
they do not possess the tools that are used to prevent spreading. We have studied how the overall development of the country where you live can
play a very important role in the assistance you receive as well as the level of care. Thus, the next five articles consider how diseases are handled and
dealt with depending on the location of the country and whether or not it is an industrialized or non–industrialized.
Article 1: Vaccination strategies forepidemic cholera in Haiti with implications for the developing world (Chao, Halloran, Longini, and Nair 2011).
This article discusses the

Influenza Vaccination Should be Mandatory Essay
Influenza is very contagious and spreads rapidly from person to person. Influenza causes worldwide yearly epidemics. According to World Health
organization Influenza affects 5–15% world's population and resulting in 500,000 deaths yearly. Ottenberg stated that, in United States, an average of
200,000 were hospitalized and 36,000 died each year from influenza complications. Influenza is the sixth leading cause of death among US adults
and is related to 1 in 20 death in persons older than 65 years. Disease control and prevention estimates indicate that infections like H1N1 which is one
of the types of influenza, have resulted in an estimated 42 to 86 million cases and 8520 to 17620 deaths. As I mentioned earlier that infections like ...
If we eliminate these barriers and mandate vaccination, it will help in increasing rate of vaccination (Suillivan, 2010).
Argument#1
To increase patient and hcw safety, health care workers should be mandate to get vaccination. Hcw are more at risk to get infection because of their
contact with patient and then to spread it to patients, specially patients who are susceptible to the infection (CITATION). Influenza symptoms appears
within 1–4 days. Before even hcw workes know that they have influenza infection and they are contagious, they may spread the infection to patient .
Also, if hcw are infected, it will cause impact on their mental and physical functioning. Two randomly conducted studies have supported that mandatory
influenza vaccination for hcw helped in decreasing death rate upto 44% in nursing home residents (Ottenberg, 2011). Potter et. al. identified that
because of increased staff vaccination mortality rate reduced from 17% to 10% (Suillivan, 2010). The other fact which can effect patient safety due to
low rate of vaccination is absenteeism of hcw during influenza epidemic.
Argumet #2 Other very important reason why hcw s should be mandate to get vaccination is that it is cost effective.
Gregory, tosh, and

Influenza Is An Acute Viral Infection
Introduction (.5 pages)
Seasonal influenza commonly referred to as the "flu" is an acute viral infection caused by the influenza virus that can have possibly devastating effects
on a community ("Influenza (Seasonal)," 2014). Seasonal influenza viruses cause annual epidemics that peak during the winter but can begin as early
as late fall and last through early spring ("Prevention and Control of Influenza," 2008). Influenza infections in the US affect a large amount of the US
population. On average in the United States 200,000 people are hospitalized due to influenza infections ("Vaccine–Preventable Adult Diseases," 2016).
In addition, the annual death toll in the United States alone related to influenza and its complications is about 20,000 (Fallon, 2013). Though influenza
can affect people at any age, the rates of serious illness and death are among the highest in persons aged sixty–five or older ("Prevention and Control of
Influenza," 2008). The disproportionate effect of the influenza infection on older adults calls for public health interventions.

Influenza Epidemic: A Case Study
Patricia felt that Marshall had influenza versus the common cold due to an abrupt onset to his symptoms. Marshall's symptoms began at daycare and
that afternoon he was taken to the doctor with a multitude of symptoms. It is important for Marshall to be medically evaluated to ensure that he is
appropriately treated. He will require a correct and quick diagnosis. A physical exam and rapidinfluenza test should be utilized to determine the
diagnosis of influenza (Grossman & Porth, 2014, Chapter 36).
Influenza A, B, and C viruses are responsible for epidemics in humans. They are "characterized by a segmented, single–stranded ribonucleic acid
(RNA) genome" (Grossman & Porth, 2014, p. 932). The influenza A virus contains 2 subtypes: hemagglutinin

Influenza Epidemic: A Case Study
Every year in America we face an influenza epidemic. Measures must be taken to prepare communities and vulnerable members of our population
through vaccinating, hand washing and other forms of disinfection to help stop the virus from gaining a foothold. The purpose of this paper is to look
into the history and current processes pertaining to the virus, while constructing new practices for what the future of influenza in America may look like.
Since the humble beginning of America, the need for import and export has been imperative for our nations success and survival. Thus, trade became a
welcome introduction where communities could gather, network while exchanging goods. This was also an opportunity to keep the thriving
population informed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Parents have claimed that these ingredients have left their children with some degree of a neurological disorder that was not present prior to
vaccination. These voices are building momentum, not for a democratic conversation about vaccinations but dividing many members of our vaccinated
population to antivaxxers, and as such, weakening the heard immunity of America. Medical communities are expressing great concern over the amount
of voids in children's immunization records across the board because this lowers the percentage of immunity strength against the very virus that since
its beginnings has taken millions of lives, "Influenza outbreaks are difficult to control without the use of vaccines and antiviral drugs. The public health
response should focus on early identification and treatment of cases at risk of becoming severe; social–distancing measures applied at the community
level; infection control measures; vaccination (when a vaccine becomes available); and in some cases, antiviral prophylaxis" (Selvey, et al., 2015,
p.199). The conversation between the medical community and antivaxxers needs to be more of an open forum, where parents can get up to date
information and know exactly what the contents are. This alone can begin to turn around many on the fence mentality and bring those that have been
avoiding vaccinating their child or other

INFLUENZA Essay
INFLUENZA
Introduction
One can claim that influenza is an infection that has victimized people from just about every generation that we have known. The term Influenza
comes from the Latin word "influentia", first used by the Italians in the 1600's. It is a highly contagious infection particulary of the respiratory tract.In
addition to us humans, influenza can occur in pigs, horses, and several other mammals as well as in certain wild and birds. It can also jump from
specie to specie as observed in late 1997 when influenza from chickens was having its effects on people in Hong Kong. Because influenza is highly
contagious and spreads easily, it has appeared in our history many a times as epidemics. Influenza is caused by an ... Show more content on
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Hemagglutinin is very important for the virus to bind to animal cells, for example, a human red blood cell. This causes agglutination which is the
clumping of the red blood cells. Tests based on this simple clumping of the red blood cells is useful to determine if one has influenza. The
neuraminidase is used to cut off the viruses hemagglutinin receptors when new viruses are produced and start budding off. It also degrades the mucosal
surfaces of the lungs and the throat to prevent being ejected. This hampers the ability of the antibodies of getting into the lungs.
Spreading & Multiplication
As soon as the virus is in the body, it uses the hemagglutinin to bind to the cell surface. The membranes of the virus and the cell fuse togather and the
capsid that contains the single stranded RNA is released into the cytoplasm. The protein coat of the virus dissassembles and then starts making viral
proteins and viral RNA copies. The new virus proteins are put togather near the cell membrane and then bud off from the membrance. Influenza has a
rapid onset and pronounced symptoms. After the influenza virus invades a person's body, an incubation period of one to two days passes before
symptoms appear. For most people flu symptoms begin to subside after two to three days and disappear in seven to ten days. However, symptoms like
coughing and fatigue may persist for two

The 1918 Spanish Influenza Epidemic
Influenza over the years has mutated so many different times that it is hard for scientists to keep up with new and updated versions of vaccines to
keep people protected. The Flu for some people can cause major complications such as pneumonia and bronchitis because the Flu attacks the
respiratory area, but most people who get the Flu will recover in a few days or up to a few weeks. The 1918 Spanish Flu was the worst epidemic that
ever hit the world and the contributing factors of the millions of death were that there was no such thing as vaccines or antibiotics to fight off
infections. The side effects were so severe that doctors misdiagnosed Influenza as a different infectious disease, and this specific Flu killed more people
than the plague.

Summary: The First Industrial Revolution
The first Industrial Revolution was a time of rapid change in social, economic, and political aspects in society. An influx of people changing
professions leads to rapid urbanization and decreased living standards. The shortage of space and the lack of sanitary systems allowed Cholera to
take hold of Britain. Water pollution lead to the infection of the lower class and an entire area could receive the disease form a single source. Previous
to the first epidemic, medical professionals understood very little about the spread of disease and how to handle conditions as serious as when Cholera
arrived. Victims were often wrongly diagnosed and attempts to quarantine were met with resistance from merchants who feared losing revenue.
When Cholera first entered Britain the public was distracted by the political agenda: Parliamentary and Voting Reform. King George IV had recently
died and the topic was gaining more attention than ever before. This political change increased representation in ... Show more content on
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Church members tended to be of higher class and wealthy which created distrust from the common people who were generally more likely to be
infected. The Church called for fasting and prayer to combat Cholera and labelled the epidemic as divine retribution. This created even more social
unrest due to poor conditions and the lower classes determined that the epidemic could be a sign that the reform was being delayed for too long.
Songs and posters created an image of doctors and clergymen of being dishonest and robbing the poor of their hard earned money. People were more
concerned with the reform than the disease and Cholera appeared to be a tool of the rich to swindle the poor. While the public had little concern for
the epidemic the medical professionals and clergy were attempting to address what they believed was the root of the

The Influenza and Pneumonia Epidemic of 1918-1919 Essay
The Influenza and Pneumonia Epidemic of 1918–1919
In the ten months between September 1918 and June 1919, 675,000 Americans died of influenza and pneumonia. When compared to the number of
Americans killed in combat in World War I, World War II, Korea, and Vietnam combined
– 423,000– it becomes apparent that the influenza epidemic of
1918–1919 was far more deadly than the war which it accompanied. (Crosby, 206–207) The United States and the rest of the world had been exposed
to such epidemics in the past, but never at such a severe cost in human life.
The influenza epidemic came in two waves. The first wave, in the spring of 1918, took far fewer victims than the second. Americans stricken with the
flu that spring wondered at the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The first wave began in the spring of 1918; for the most part, America's public health system ignored it. Generally, public health departments did not
receive reports of influenza. Most doctors cited pneumonia on the death certificates of those killed, since flu came first and weakened the resistance of
the sick, then pneumonia followed and was the eventual cause of death for most people.
The problem of diagnosis caused much confusion in determining the actual number of cases of flu. The Denver Post ran an article during that first
wave to inform its readers of how to tell the difference between a cold and the flu. According to the Post , "the onset of a cold is not so sudden, its
ache not so severe, its fever not so high, and it is marked by chilliness rather than definite chills." (Crosby, note on 41) Bacteriological tests did not
provide any further insight, and doctors around the country argued the merits and drawbacks of various diagnostic methods.
Finally, the spring wave of flu went largely unnoticed for the most part because the United States did not have a sufficient network of federal, state, and
local public health departments. They could not communicate properly to compile existing data on influenza and pneumonia in 1918 into some sort of
picture of the epidemic. The only clear picture came from such institutions and organizations as prisons and the Armed Forces. They held complete
jurisdiction over

The Impact of a Pandemic
The world has experienced a total of four pandemics within the twentieth century. These pandemics, as horrific and deadly as they are, have brought so
much more positive advances to our health care system and how we prepare for biological threats. Although we are in the twenty–first century and we
have advanced so far in healthcare, there is still the possibility of a deadly pandemic. Many people may confuse Pandemic with Epidemic which can
often times lead to being over prepared or under prepared. An epidemic as an infectious disease that quickly travels within a city, state, or country
from person to person. An example of an epidemic would be SARS, which spread through many countries and killed roughly 800 people. On the
other hand, Pandemics differ because the infectious disease is spread globally. A pandemic has a much higher infectious rate and an even larger
death rate compared to an epidemic. The world has experienced a total of four pandemics in the twentieth century starting in 1918 until present. In
1918, the spanish flu caught worldwide attention when it infected close to half the population of the world, claiming more than 40 million lives.
What made the spanish flu capable of infecting over a billion people was the ability to quickly transfer from person to person. At the time, world war
1 was happening and the mass activation and recruitment of troops to fight made the spread of the flu easy. The Asian flu of 1957 was second deadly
pandemic to hit the

The Importance Of A Pandemic In The United States
Why have the citizens of the United States never heard about a plan as to what would happen if there was a pandemic occurring in the U.S.? This
may either be due to the fact that there is more than one plan in place by multiple government agencies such as the Centers of Medicare and Medicaid
Services (CMS) and the National Governors Association (NGA) or the United States has not recently gone through a pandemic with a high mortality
rate. The difference between a pandemic and an epidemic is that an epidemic is a disease or virus that spreads through a certain area in a country
while a pandemic is a disease or virus that spreads through more than one country. In the last fifty years, there have been many different pandemics
present in the U.S. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Many of these publically available plans agree on the importance of the public's health, standard plans like the COOP plan, the importance of
general hygiene, and realization that many people may die, but there are many differences. For example, there are two different release dates for
vaccines, and seeing as these are both government agencies, one would believe that the vaccines would be available around the same time. Then
there are also inconsistencies with who is in charge of a pandemic in the United States' government system, and while some sources say the
surgeon general or the president is in charge, others say the CNC is in charge. If the government officials and agencies can't come to an agreement
with what to do in times of a pandemic, this can cause a power struggle within the government due to disagreements. In some plans, there are even
debated topics on when or if authorities can step in depending on the severity of the pandemic. With the different plans not being able to agree
when specific agencies that help work against the pandemic are to step in, this can lead to confusion. All of these inconsistencies can lead to a
potential delay in the research and end of a pandemic. To improve the United States's approach towards a pandemic there must be one plan for the
country this way the people only have to rely on the information of one plan. Even if there is more than one plan in place, important things like
vaccine release dates and who is in charge must be consistent to insure the understanding of the different plans for the people. Another way to improve
the approach is to make an easier way to access the plan without having to spend long amounts of time searching for one online, and this can be easily
done through education in school systems, workplaces, and places of

Influenza Epidemic: A Brief Summary
I would have to say that Mack and the boys would be the main characters in this book. They are a group of mischievous, scandalous, scheming men
who live together. They run the run–down fish–meal shack that is owned by Lee Chong. There is Mack, Eddie, Hazel and Gay. Mack is the leader of
the bunch. Mack is a smart, charismatic man who can charm anyone into anything. He tries to attempt to do things the easy way and to his
advantage often get him into trouble. Eddie is a fill in bartender at the local bar. He brings home stolen bottles and a jug filled with remnants from
customers' drinks, this makes him immensely popular all around. Hazel is very hardworking and helps out the Doc on collecting trips. He is a very
hard worker. Hazel was given... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the first couple of chapter the book goes off "topic" several times to explain who people are in the community and what they represent. In the end
of the book the author throw in another digression that most people say is unintentional, however I do not think so. The digression of the gopher is
just another story of "someone" in the community waiting to mate with someone. The gopher also encounters some bad luck waiting on his mate to
get there. I think that the author put this last little "off topic" story in on purpose. I think that the gopher is a symbol of a lot of the people in the
community. They are all trying to settle down and build a life there and bad luck strikes them and they have to readjust. I think overall that this is a
must read story. It teaches you that communities are made to help everyone overcome obstacles. It also shows that everyone has a place and job in
their communities, no matter how big or small. A well rounded good

The Epidemic Of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever
Introduction
Ebola hemorrhagic fever is a severe and often deadly illness named after a river in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly ZaГЇre) where it was
п¬Ѓrst identiп¬Ѓed in 1976 with a high case fatality rate lying between 50 and 90%. Outbreaks between 1972 and 2007 are shown in Table 1. The
disease п¬Ѓrst came into the limelight in 1976 in ZaГЇre and Sudan in 1976 [17]. Its origin is still unknown and it is widely believed that Ebola virus is
transmitted to humans from discrete life cycles in animals or insects, but regardless of the original source. Person–to–person transmission is the means
by which Ebola outbreaks and epidemics progress. Bioterrorism threats as well as emergence of new pandemic and drug–resistant variants of known
infections require development of the tools that would adequately predict occurrence of epidemics, assess efficiency of countermeasures, and optimize
the efforts directed towards provision of biological safety.
Mathematical modeling has emerged as an important tool for gaining understanding of the dynamics of the spread of infectious diseases. The need of
accurate models describing the epidemic process are vital, because infectious diseases outbreaks disturb the host population and has п¬Ѓnancial and
health consequences. There is also the need to use sound statistical analysis methods to test the п¬Ѓt of such models to observed data to account for
uncertainties by means of probabilistic models.
The optimization of the control of an

The 1918 Influenza Epidemic Essay
What would later become one of the deadliest plagues the world had ever seen started innocuously enough in the spring of 1918 spreading through
populations on both sides of the Atlantic. Remarkable for its highly infectious nature, the spring strain was relatively non–lethal, rarely killing infected
individuals (Kolata, 1999). Thus little more than average attention was paid to the precursor of a virus that would eventually kill between twenty–one
and one–hundred million individuals worldwide (Barry, 2004). Only after the fall wave of the 1918 influenza did it become a requirement to report
cases of influenza thus information on this first wave is sporadic at best (Kolata, 1999). I will argue that the nature of this missing data combined ...
10). Although it produced an intense fever and headache the worse of the symptoms often subsided within three to four days. The second wave was
not nearly as kind. Upon visiting Camp Devins, William Welch, founder of Johns Hopkins Medical School was greeted by a grisly sight, "Blood was
everywhere...pouring out of some men's nostrils and even ears while others coughed it up. Many of the soldiers, boys in their teens, men in their
twenties – healthy, normally ruddy men – were turning blue (Barry, 2004, p. 189)." Something had happened to take the ordinary, relatively
benevolent seasonal flu and turn it into a killer. Of all the present theories to account for this remarkable transformation the most credible is that of
viral adaptation (Barry, 2004). This theory states that when moving between species a virus is briefly less efficient in its new host species than the old
due to differences in internal biochemistry. This makes the virus less virulent. Thus those most affected by the weakened virus will be those with
weakened immune systems. As the virus adapts to its new host species it becomes steadily more deadly until it reaches an upper limit where it is
killing off its hosts too rapidly so that the most virulent strains cannot spread.
The Spanish flu was unusual in a number of respects but one of the most notable was

Influenza Virus
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines epidemiology as, "the study of the distribution and determinants of health–related states or events
(including diseases), and the application of this study to the control of disease and other health problems" (Epidemiology, 2015). There are different
types of methods that can be used for epidemiological investigations which include: surveillance and descriptive studies, as well as analytical studies (
Epidemiology, 2015). Influenza is a viral respiratory illness that is highly contagious (Influenza (Flu), 2015). Since it is so contagious it can cause a
pandemic, epidemic, or outbreak causing sporadic cases (Mestrovic, 2014). There are two major types of influenza viruses type A and type B
(Mestrovic, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The information showed that during the 2013–2014 year there were not a lot of individuals who were vaccinated (Fast Stats, 2014). There could be
several reasons why individuals did not get the vaccination; lack of education, allergic to the ingredient, and cultural beliefs are just a few. When
individuals do not get the influenza vaccination they are putting themselves, as well as others at risk for contracting the disease as well as spreading it to
others (Influenza (Flu), 2015). Each influenza season researchers determine how well the vaccination worked by looking at study design, outcomes
measured, population studied, as well as the season during which the flu vaccination was studied (Vaccine Effectiveness, 2015). This research can be a
challenge, however in general the studies have shown that influenza vaccinations do in fact benefit the public's health (Vaccine Effectiveness,

Influenza Cause And Effect
Introduction
As it is known to everyone, the influenza is a worldwide infectious disease and very familiar to those people who are living in small villages or in very
big cities. The influenza or the flu as it usually referred is caused by RNA viruses which belong to Orthomyxoviridae family. These viruses affect
mammals and birds as well. The influenza is typically transmitted through the air by sneezes or coughs creating virus containing aerosols. This is not
the only way for influenza transmission but it could be also transmitted by nasal secretions or bird droppings if directly contact (Collier et al., 2006).
"influential " is a Latin word from where the virus gets the name and it means influence, as in the fourteenth century some Italians

John M. Barry's The Great Influenza Epidemic
In a passage from The Great Influenza, an account of the 1918 flu epidemic, John M. Barry claims that scientists must not only accept uncertainty, but
they must also embrace it. He begins by explaining how uncertainty produces weaknesses, and he emphasizes that even with great uncertainty, a
scientist must courageously move forward. Barry then includes analogies to present the challenges that arise from advancing into the unknown and
how the embrace of the unknown itself serves as the only way that will lead scientists to success.Through his use of analogies, his employment of
irony, and his appeal to logos, he effectively convinces the readers that although uncertainty might seem like an obstacle, it is a tool that will allow
scientists to prosper.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In lines 3–5, Barry states, "Uncertainty creates weaknesses. Uncertainty makes one tentative...significant obstacles." The unconfident feeling that
results from doubt prevents scientists from succeeding because they are tentative about which steps to take. They fear that if they take the wrong path,
they will not find the explanation to their scientific questions. In lines 8–10, Barry then highlights the trait that scientists must possess when they face
the unknown. "It is not the courage to venture into the unknown. It is the courage to accept – indeed, embrace – uncertainty." The use of conduplicatio
in this statement stresses the role of courage within a scientist. Courage serves as the most important trait because it allows scientists to progress further
without full knowledge of the possible

Geographical Benefits Of Eurasia Essay
The geographical advantages of Eurasia allowed civilizations to develop productive agriculture, and domesticated animals as a result the Europeans had
food surplus, developed immunity to epidemic diseases, and forged steel. These inherited advantages allowed them to decimate other civilizations and
appropriate their resources making them even more powerful.
Agriculture is only one of the many contributes to where we are today. Geographic location affects agriculture because each specific crop has needs,
if you can't meet those needs, then you can't grow the crops. Some plants need super wet land and some need super dry land ,let's say you live in
Papua New Guinea they live closer the the equator so they have the same weather year round. So if you're constantly getting the same amount of
sunlight all year then you'll only be able to grow the same crops over and over again. Papua New Guinea had sago, to get sago people there would
have to cut down the sago tree, cut the sago tree in half and collect the sago inside. With sago you have to have a wet climate, the sago tree takes
three or four days to prepare. Sago does not last long after it is prepared, sago is low in protein and uses more calories then it gives. But Fertile
Crescent on the other hand live farther from the equator, so they end up getting four seasons while rotating around the sun.Which leads to an advantage
in almost everything. A change in weather four times a year gives them a chance to plant and grow

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