The document summarizes the rise of authoritarian dictatorships in Europe following World War 1. It describes the Russian Civil War and the establishment of Lenin and Stalin's communist rule in the Soviet Union. It also discusses the rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini and the failure of democracy in Germany, which paved the way for Hitler and the Nazis to rise to power. Key events included the Russian Civil War, Stalin's collectivization policies, the Great Terror, Mussolini's march on Rome, and Hitler being appointed chancellor of Germany in 1933.

1. TURMOIL BETWEEN THE
WARS
Chapter 25

2. Introduction
 The legacy of the Great War
 Near-collapse of democracy
 The rise of authoritarian dictatorships

3. The Soviet Union under
Lenin and Stalin
 The Russian Civil War
 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk polarized Russian society
 The Whites
 Loose group united by the desire to remove the Reds
from power
 Supporters of the old regime
 Reds (Bolsheviks) faced strong nationalist
movements

4. The Soviet Union under
Lenin and Stalin
 The Russian Civil War
 United States, Britain, and Japan intervene on the
periphery of the old empire
 Solidified Bolshevik mistrust of capitalist world powers
 Bolshevik victory
 Gained greater support from the majority of the
population
 Better organization
 Leon Trotsky as new commissar of war

5. The Soviet Union under
Lenin and Stalin
 The Russian Civil War
 Consequences
 One million combat casualties
 Several million dead from hunger and disease
 Created permanent hatreds

6. July 4, 1917

7. Women’s Battalion

8. Widows and Orphans by Käthe Kollwitz, 1919

9. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
 War communism
 Government control of industry
 Outlawed private trade in consumer goods
 Militarized production facilities and abolished
money
 Consequences
 Devastated Russian industry and emptied major cities
 Large-scale famine (1921)
 Large-scale strikes

10. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
 The NEP period (New Economic Policy)
 Abandoning war communism
 Reversion to state capitalism
 State owned all major industry
 Individuals could own private property
 Trading freely within limits
 Grain requisitioning replaced by fixed taxes on
the peasantry
 Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938)

11. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
 The NEP period (New Economic Policy)
 Peasants should ―enrich‖ themselves
 Taxes would support urban industrialization and
working classes
 The ―golden age of the Russian peasantry‖
 Divided up noble lands to level wealth disparities
 Reintroduced traditional social structure (peasant
communes)
 Produced enough grain to feed the country

12. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
 The NEP period (New Economic Policy)
 Abandoning war communism
 Reversion to state capitalism
 State owned all major industry
 Individuals could own private property
 Trading freely within limits
 Grain requisitioning replaced by fixed taxes on
the peasantry
 Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938)

13. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
 The NEP period (New Economic Policy)
 Failure
 Peasants refused to participate in markets to benefit
urban areas
 Kept excess grain for themselves
 Cities experienced grain shortages

14. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
 Stalin and the ―Revolution from Above‖
 Stalin the man
 Born in Georgia as Iosip Jughashvili (1879–1953)
 Exiled to Siberia for revolutionary activity
 Stalin the strategist
 Isolated all opposition
 Used the left to isolate the right, used the right to
isolate the left

15. Lenin and Stalin

16. The Soviet Union under
Lenin
 Stalin and the ―Revolution from Above‖
 Stalin the strategist
 By 1929, Trotsky and Bukharin were removed from
positions of power
 Abandoned NEP
 Increased tempo of industrialization
 Forced industrialization and the total
collectivization of agriculture

17. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
 Collectivization
 Local party and police officials forced peasants to
join collective farms
 Peasant resistance: sixteen hundred large-scale
rebellions between 1929 and 1933

18. Winter Deportations, 1929–1930

19. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
 Collectivization
 The famine (1932–1933)
 The human cost was 3–5 million lives
 The Bolsheviks retained grain reserves in other parts
of the country
 Grain reserves sold overseas for currency and
stockpiled in the event of war

20. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
 The Five-Year Plans
 Campaign of forced industrialization
 First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932)
 Most stunning period of economic growth
 Built new industries in new cities
 Urban population more than doubled (from 26 million
to 56 million) between 1924 and 1939

21. “Imperialists cannot Stop the Success of the Five Year Plan!”

22. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
 The Five-Year Plans
 The human cost
 Large-scale projects carried out with prison labor
 The Gulag system
 By 1940, 3.6 million people were incarcerated by the
regime

23. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
 The Five-Year Plans
 Structural problems
 The command economy: production levels planned
from Moscow in advance
 Heavy industry favored over light industry
 Emphasis on quantity over quality
 Cultural and economic changes
 Soviet cities
 Women entered the workforce
 The conservative shift

24. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
 The Great Terror (1937–1938)
 One million dead—1.5 million to the Gulag
 The elimination of Stalin’s enemies, real or
imagined
 Purged the old Bolsheviks
 Stalin wanted to eliminate any disagreement with his
personal views about Communism
 Communist Party disagreements included whether Soviet
Communists should export Communism around the world
or focus on creating a Communist state in Russia first.
 How democratic should the party be?
 Is it possible to have socialist and liberal reforms on the
way to Communism?

25. Plaque containing arrest photos of victims of the Great Purge.
These victims were shot at the Butovo Firing Range near Moscow.
Between 1938 and 1953 an estimated 20,000 political prisoners were shot at
Butovo and buried in mass graves.

26. We are living, but can’t feel the land where we stay,
More than ten steps away you can’t hear what we say.
But if people would talk on occasion,
They should mention the Kremlin Caucasian.
His thick fingers are bulky and fat like live-baits,
And his accurate words are as heavy as weights.
Cucaracha’s moustaches are screaming,
And his boot-tops are shining and gleaming.
But around him a crowd of thin-necked henchmen,
And he plays with the services of these half-men.
Some are whistling, some meowing, some sniffing,
He’s alone booming, poking and whiffing.
He is forging his rules and decrees like horseshoes –
Into groins, into foreheads, in eyes, and eyebrows.
Every killing for him is delight,
And Ossetian torso is wide.
“The Stalin Epigram,”
by Osip Mendelstam.
The poem was
in effect, a suicide
note as Mendelstam
knew he would be
arrested and executed.

27. The Soviet Union under
Stalin
 The Great Terror (1937–1938)
 Targeted ethnic groups (Poles, Ukrainians,
Lithuanians, Latvians, and Koreans)
 Targeted the Soviet military and resulted in the
arrest and detention of almost 10% of the top
leaders.
 Stalin and total control
 Social advances
 Illiteracy reduced
 Higher education made available to more people

28. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
 In the aftermath of war
 A democracy in distress
 Seven hundred thousand dead, $15 billion debt
 Territorial disputes

29. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
 In the aftermath of war
 Problems
 Split between the industrial north and agrarian south
 Conflict over land, wages, and local power
 Government corruption and indecision
 Inflation, unemployment, and strikes
 Demands for radical reform

30. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
 The rise of Mussolini (1883–1945)
 Editor of Avantia (leading socialist daily)
 Lost editorship when he urged Italy to side with the
Allies during World War I
 Founded Il Popolo d’Italia
 The Fasci
 Organized to drum up support for WWI

31. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)

32. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
 The rise of Mussolini (1883–1945)
 The Fascist platform (1919): universal suffrage,
the eight-hour day, and tax on inheritance
 Fascist support
 Gained respect of middle classes and landowners
 Repressed radical movements of workers and
peasants
 Attacked socialists
 Fifty thousand fascist militia marched on Rome on
October 28, 1922

33. Mussolini at the march on Rome

34. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
 Italy under Mussolini
 One-party dictatorship
 Changed the electoral laws
 Abolished cabinet system
 Mussolini assumed role of prime minister and
party leader (Il Duce)

35. The Emergence of
Fascism in Italy
 Italy under Mussolini
 Repression and censorship
 Liberals and socialists considered enemies of the
state
 Granted independence to papal residence in the
Vatican City
 Roman Catholicism established as the state
religion

36. Weimar Germany
 November 9, 1918: Revolution
 Bloodless overthrow of the imperial government
 Social Democratic Party (SPD) announced a new
German republic
 The kaiser abdicated

37. Social Democratic Party
leader, Philip
Scheiderman, announces
creation of a
German Republic
on November 9, 1918

38. Weimar Germany
 Problems
 Governed by unelected Council of People’s
Commissioners
 Introduced 8 hour workday, legalized labor unions,
required re-hiring of WWI veterans; farm labor
reforms; social welfare; national health insurance.
 Conservatives opposed these measures and
Communists thought they did not go far enough
 Elections not held until January 1919
 Communists and independent socialists staged
armed uprisings in Berlin
 Social Democrats tried to crush the uprisings

39. Weimar Germany
 The Weimar coalition
 Socialists, Catholic centrists, and liberal
democrats
 Parliamentary liberalism
 Universal suffrage for men and women
 Bill of rights

40. Freikorps Recruiting Poster

41. Freikorps
Communists

42. Weimar Germany
 The failure of Weimar
 Social, political, and economic crisis
 The humiliation of World War I
 Germany ―stabbed in the back‖ by socialists and Jews
 Versailles and reparations
 $33 billion debt
 The Dawes Plan (1924), a new schedule of payments

43. Disabled War Veteran Reduced to begging

44. Weimar Germany
 The failure of Weimar
 The government continued to print money
 Middle-class employees, farmers, and workers hit
hardest by inflation
 Economic recovery (1925)
 Scaled-down reparation payments
 Government-sponsored building projects

45. Hyperinflation

46. 1 Million Mark notes used as notepaper.

47. Weimar Germany
 The failure of Weimar
 Further problems
 U.S. stock market crash
 Unemployment
 Peasants staged mass demonstrations
 Government cut welfare benefits
 Left the door open for the opponents of
Weimar

48. By 1930, the two best organized
opposition parties were the
Communist Party and the
National Socialist German
Worker’s (NAZI) Party

49. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Adolf Hitler (1889–1945)
 Born in Austria, aspired to be an artist but was
rejected by the Academy of Fine Arts in
Vienna in 1907 and 1908.
 Lived in Vienna supported by orphan’s
benefits and support from his mother. After her
death, Hitler lived in a homeless shelter in
1909 and later in a hostel for poor laborers.
 Hitler apparently adopted Anti-Semitism,
anti-Marxism, and pan-Slavism while in
Vienna.
 After receiving a settlement of his father’s
estate, Hitler moved to Munich in 1913.

50. Hitler’s
Baby picture Hitler’s mother,
Klara
The Alter Hof in
Munich, watercolor,
1914, by Adolph
Hitler.
A soldier in WWI in a German
Bavarian Regiment

51. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Adolf Hitler (1889–1945)
 After the war, he joined the German
Workers’ Party
 1920: became the National Socialist Workers’
Party (Nazi)
 Refused to accept the November (1918)
Resolution

52. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Hitler and the Nazis
 November 1923: Munich putsch
 Hitler imprisoned
 Dictated Mein Kampf
 Portrayed himself as the savior of the German
people
 Nazi elections
 1924: Nazis polled 6.6 percent of the vote
 1928: Politics polarized between left and right
 The impossibility of a coalition

53. Beer Hall Putsch Defendants

55. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Hitler and the Nazis
 Nazi supporters
 1930 election
 Nazis won 107 of 577 seats in the Reichstag
 No party gained a majority
 Nazis supported no coalition government not headed
by Hitler which caused the failure of the conservative
coalition government

56. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Hitler as chancellor
 January 1933: Hindenberg appointed Hitler
chancellor
 February 27, 1933: Reichstag set on fire by Dutch
anarchist
 Hitler suspended civil rights
 March 5, 1933: New elections
 Hitler granted unlimited power for four years
 Hitler proclaimed the Third Reich

57. Von Hindenburg
Believed that Hitler
could be controlled
by the Conservatives

58. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Nazi Germany
 A one-party state
 Hitler’s first acts were to sharply limit freedom of the
press and to enable the cabinet to issue decrees
without the consent or approval of the Reichstag
(parliament).
 Reichstag Fire Decree suspended all civil liberties
guaranteed by the German constitution.
 Widespread arrests of known or suspected opponents
of the Nazi party.
 Opposition tactics
 Storm troopers (SA)—used to maintain party discipline
 June 30, 1934: Night of the Long Knives

59. On the basis of Article 48 paragraph 2 of the
Constitution of the German Reich, the
following is ordered in defense against
Communist state-endangering acts of
violence: Articles 114, 115, 117, 118, 123, 124
and 153 of the Constitution of the German
Reich are suspended until further notice. It is
therefore permissible to restrict the rights of
personal freedom [habeas corpus], freedom of
(opinion) expression, including the freedom of
the press, the freedom to organize and
assemble, the privacy of postal, telegraphic
and telephonic communications. Warrants for
House searches, orders for confiscations as
well as restrictions on property, are also
permissible beyond the legal limits otherwise
prescribed.
Reichstag Fire
Decree

60. The Reichstag
Fire, March 23,
1933.

61. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Nazi Germany
 Schutzstaffel (SS)
 Most dreaded arm of Nazi terror
 Organized by Heinrich Himmler
 Fighting political and racial enemies

62. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Nazi Germany
 Support
 Played off fears of communism
 Spoke a language of national pride
 Hitler as the symbol of a strong, revitalized Germany
(the Führer cult)
 The recovery of German national glory

63. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Nazi Germany
 National recovery
 Sealed Germany off from the rest of the world
 Unemployment dropped from 6 million to two hundred
thousand
 Outlawed trade unions and strikes, froze wages
 Organized workers into the National Labor Front
 Popular organizations cut across class lines

64. Still Image from Leni Riefenstahl, Triumph of the Will (1935),
a Film about a Nazi Party Rally in Nuremberg, Germany, 1934

65. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Nazi racism
 Nazi racism inherited from nineteenth-century
opinions
 Anti-Semitism
 Joined by nationalist anti-Jewish theory
 The Jew as outsider
 An ―international Jewish conspiracy‖

66. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 Nazi racism
 April 1933: New racial laws excluded Jews from
public office
 1935 Nuremberg Decrees
 Deprived Jews of citizenship (determined by bloodline)
 November 1938: Kristallnacht (Night of Broken
Glass)

67. Nazi Boycott of Jewish Shops in Berlin, 1933

68. Hitler and the
National Socialists
 National socialism and fascism
 Both arose in the interwar period as responses to
war and revolution
 Intensely nationalistic
 Opposed parliamentary government and
democracy

69. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
 Western democracies
 France
 Continued to fear Germany
 Policy of deflation
 Britain
 Policy of deflation
 Reduction in wages and decline in the standard of
living
 The Labour Party (1924 and 1929)
 Increasing trade union militancy

70. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
 Western democracies
 United States
 Bastion of conservatism
 Presidents and the Supreme Court

71. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
 The origins of the Great Depression
 Causes
 Instability of national currencies
 Interdependence of national economies
 Widespread drop in industrial productivity
 Restrictions of free trade

72. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
 The origins of the Great Depression
 October 1929: collapse of the New York Stock
Exchange
 United States as world’s creditor nation
 Immediate and disastrous consequences for
European economy
 Banking houses closed, manufacturers laid off entire
workforces

73. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
 The origins of the Great Depression
 Government response
 Britain
 Abandoned gold standard and free trade
 France
 The Popular Front under Léon Blum
 Nationalized munitions industry
 Forty-hour week
 Fixed the price and regulated the distribution of grain

74. The Great Depression
in the Democracies
 The origins of the Great Depression
 Government response
 United States
 The New Deal and FDR
 Recovery without destroying capitalism
 Managing the economy and public-works projects
 John Maynard Keynes

75. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 The rejection of tradition and the experiment
with new forms of expression
 Interwar intellectuals
 Disillusionment with war and the failure of victory
 Frustration, cynicism, and disenchantment
 Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961): The Sun Also
Rises (1926), the ―lost generation‖

76. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Interwar intellectuals
 T. S. Eliot (1888–1965): The Waste Land (1922),
life is a living death
 Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956): corruption of
Germany’s elites
 The politicization of literature

77. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Interwar artists
 Developments paralleled those in literature
 The dominance of the avant-garde
 Subjective experience
 Multiplicity of meanings
 Personal expression
 The rejection of traditional forms and values
 Pushing the boundaries of aesthetics

78. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Interwar artists
 Expressionism—paintings need not have subjects
at all
 The Dadaists
 Rejected all forms of artistic conventions
 Haphazard ―fabrications‖

79. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Interwar artists
 Architecture
 Functionalism
 ―Form ever follows function‖ (Sullivan)
 Ornamentation to reflect an age of science and machines

80. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Interwar scientific developments
 Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
 Revolutionized modern physics
 Challenged our beliefs about the universe
 New ways of thinking about space, matter, time, and
gravity

81. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Mass culture and its possibilities
 Explosive rise of mass media—media for the
masses
 Mass politics as a fact of life
 Cut across class lines, ethnicity, and nationality
 Democratic and authoritarian possibilities

82. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Mass culture and its possibilities
 The radio
 Europe: broadcasting rights owned by the government
 United States: broadcasting managed by corporations
 National soapbox for politicians
 FDR’s fireside chats
 Nazi propaganda
 The new ritual of political life—communication and
persuasion

83. Voice of the People, Voice of God by George Grosz (1920)

84. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Mass culture and its possibilities
 Advertising
 Visual images replaced older ads
 Efficient communication, streamlined and
standardized
 Drew on modern psychology
 Film
 France and Italy had strong film industries
 1927: Sound added to films

85. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Mass culture and its possibilities
 Film
 United States gained a competitive edge in Europe
 Size of home market
 Huge investments in equipment and distribution
 The Hollywood ―star system‖
 The ―Americanization‖ of culture
 A threat to European culture?
 Introduced Europe to new ways of life

86. Interwar Culture:
Artists and Intellectuals
 Mass culture and its possibilities
 The Nazis and propaganda
 Used film as a means of indoctrination and control
 ―Spectacular politics‖
 Leni Riefenstahl (1902–2003): Triumph of the Will
(1934)
 Tried to limit influence of American popular culture
 Dance and jazz

87. Conclusion
 The strains of World War I
 The Great Depression
 International tensions