Brain Function

Brain Function
"Discuss the impact of physical activity on brain function"
Introduction:
For a long time, it was suspected that exercise improved brain functioning and many different kind
studies were done over the years to confirm this. Data from the studies, all associate physical
activity with brain functioning and indicate that the two factors are positively correlated. The
majority of these studies have looked into the impact of physical activity on brain cognition in hopes
of finding methods of treatment for neurological cognitive disorders.
Cognitive disorders
Cognition is the ability to process and gain knowledge and understanding through senses and
experiences. Memory, problem–solving, decision–making, attention, language, comprehension and
spatial ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Levels brain–derived neurotrophic factor (BNDF) in the dentate gyrus of the four months old Wistar
rats, was observed to have increased after being subjected to short–term exercise that involved 7
days of forced running on treadmill.[4] The dentate gyrus is the part of hippocampus where new
neurons are made and cognitive skills are developed. BNDF instigates neural growth and inhibits
the death of neural cells. The rate of neurogenesis is greater after exercise as the levels of BNDF
was higher in the rats that underwent the exercise programme than in the rats from the control
group. An increase in the expression of long–term potentiation (LTP) after exercise was also noted.
It was suggested that exercise had increased the "induction threshold of the synaptic activities". [4]
These results indicates that short–term exercises increase neuroplasticity in the dentate gyrus. The
increase in neuroplasticity appears to have caused the improvement of object recognition skills that
the exercise group rodents had shown. Therefore, exercise has improved the rats' object recognition
ability (considered as a type of cognitive skill), by increasing the neuroplasticity in the dentate
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

What Psychological Information Is Available From The Early...
Recognizing a face is a starting point when interacting socially, as it is the most important stimuli
we see. The face portrays information about a person's identity, their emotional state and where they
are directing their visual attention. To be able to process this information within a very short space
of time is crucial in social interactions and probably dates back to our ancestor's survival. The
human brain is very adept in processing an abundance of information in a simple yet effortless way.
These processes require such specific brain areas to do this. This essay is going to discuss what
psychological information is available from the early stages of face processing. The essay will
discuss the neuroscience and the regions of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When humans cognitively process faces this involves either holistic processing or configural
processing. There is evidence that the processing of faces is done much more holistically than with
objects as this comes from studies of inversion (Yin, 1969). An inverted face impairs the recognition
and is much more difficult to encode than with other objects and this could be due to the spatial
relations.
In facial recognition a face model was created by Bruce and Young in 1986 and is one of the most
influential face models to be created and is still used. It comprises of eight components: structural
encoding, expression analysis, facial speech analysis, directed visual processing, face recognition
nodes, person identity nodes, name generation and cognitive system. According to their face
recognition model various types of information are acquired from faces. When recognising a
familiar face, the components used depend largely on structural encoding, face recognition units,
person identity nodes and name generation. In comparison with an unfamiliar face, the components
used depend largely on structural encoding, expression analysis, facial speech analysis and directed
visual processing. However, as the face model created by Bruce and Young (1986) was quite
complex, a simpler version was created by Duchaine and Nakayama (2006) which provided four
stages: face detection, structural encoding, face memory and emotion/gender etc.
It is undeniable

A Role for Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Learning and Memory...
Inflammatory modulation of learning and memory– A role for hippocampal neurogenesis?
Hippocampal neurogenesis
Neurogenesis is the birth of new neurons. It is a multistep process which consists of asymmetric
division of neural stems ultimately leading to the generation of new neurons. In the hippocampus,
neurogenesis occurs predominantly during embryonic development and also during adulthood
(Altman and Das, 1965). In the human brain, adult neurogenesis occurs in the subgranular zone of
the dentate gyrus throughout life (Eriksson et al., 1998). Newly formed cells in the subgranular layer
then migrate to the granular layer of the dentate gyrus where they express a neuronal phenotype
(Kuhn et al., 1996). These adult–formed granule cells are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The mice were placed in an open–field square which had a striped pattern on one wall of the field.
Two identical objects were placed in the field. The test consisted of an exploration phase and a test
phase. During the exploration phase the MAM treated mice as well as the control mice spent the
same amount of time exploring the objects. However during the test phase, in which one object was
moved to a new location, the MAM treated mice spent a significantly less amount of time exploring
the object in the new location in comparison to the control mice. This suggests that the MAM
treated mice were unable to discriminate between the novel and familiar location (Goodman et al.,
2010).
The Morris Water Maze (MWM) is a behavioural test that can test the hippocampal dependent
spatial learning ability of rodents. Rodents with hippocampal lesions show impaired performance in
this test (Morris et al., 1982). Evidence suggests that neurogenesis is involved in long term spatial
memory of rodents. Rats were subjected to whole brain irradiation to eliminate adult neurogenesis.
Rats were placed in a circular pool of water with a submerged platform in one of its quadrants. The
platform was not visible due to the water being opaque. There were spatial cues around the circular
pool that could be used as cues to learn the spatial location of the platform. The

Ho-Suk And Observation
Ho–suk is highly motivated and is always in the lab. I found her here on weekends and late in the
evening. She enjoys carrying out experiments, collecting and interpreting the data. She has a healthy
self–critical view. She also knows the literature and can critique papers with excellent insight. She
seeks advice as necessary but shows a high degree of independence. An example will illustrate her
persistence. As part of her Autism research plan she set up a collaboration with RIKEN labs in Japan
to screen their genome–wide ENU mutant DNA archive (10 000 mice) for mutant alleles of the ncs–
1 gene (candidate gene for autism). This required designing and optimizing primer sets for every
exon. She succeeded in obtaining one loss of function mutant ... Show more content on
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The work of my previous Ph.D student of Bechara Saab was published in the top neuroscience
journal Neuron (Cell Press) and had a ground–breaking impact on the field. This paper was selected
for a press release, picked up by television stations and newspapers across the country. "Exercising
your curiosity could make you smarter, researchers say", September 16 2009, from the National Post
said "Scientists at Toronto's Mount Sinai Hospital say exercising your curiosity may make you
smarter. In a paper published in the journal Neuron, Dr. John Roder and Bechara Saab described a
study of the interaction of two proteins in a small region of the brain–– the dentate gyrus –– which
plays a role in long–term memory and spatial navigation. The scientists took a certain protein, which
is linked to autism, and increased it by 50% in the dentate gyrus of mice. This increased the ability
of brain cells to change how they communicate with each other and gave the mice superior memory
in complex tasks and a significant increase in curiosity. Dr. Saab said it is the first time scientists
have found a molecular link between intelligence and curiosity." Faculty of 1000, who monitors the
best papers in Biology, gave his paper their top score

Synaptic Connections
The weakening of synaptic connections is not the only mechanism involved in transience, there is
also evidence that complete synaptic elimination either through shrinkage or loss of spines can be
responsible for a portion of natural forgetting. This relationship between synaptic elimination and
natural forgetting has been observed in the nematode C. elegans. In C. elegans associative learning
induces synapse growth at a specific neuron. However, after a few hours the modified synapse
shrinks and reverts back to its original native state, this change back to its native state is also
accompanied by the loss of the associative memory. [6] This means that if there many instances of
synapse shrinking occurring over time it can lead to a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These rearrangements are integral to the adaptive nature of the brain and crucial to its many
functions. However, having a continuous stream of new synapse appearing and modifying the
connectivity patterns of a finite space must lead to the removal of some data in order to maintain an
efficient system; this means that processes that promote the remodeling of the brain also promote
instability within some of the connections and in turn transience. [3] This promotion of transience
by neurogenesis has been observed and confirmed by various recent studies of rodents. One of these
studies observed the stability of perforant path–dentate gyrus long–term potentiation in awake,
active rats. Researchers in this study monitored the strength of perforant path–dentate gyrus in
multiple rats over several weeks. They found that in the control group the rat's long–term
potentiation reverted back to baseline within approximately a week, but in the group of rats that
were irradiated in order to eliminate hippocampal neurogenesis, long–term potentiation was
prolonged with potentiation still observable after 2 weeks. [7] These results show a strong
correlation between the promotion of neural connection re–arranging via neurogenesis and inducing
the decay of long–term potentiation, conversely the prevention of neural connection re–arranging
was shown to promote persistence of long–term potentiation. A second study involving mice was
also

Questions On Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Kerri Walter
Professor Jared Medina
Honors Cognition
4/18/17
Kanwisher 1997
1. With what question(s) is/are the author mainly concerned?
The author of this paper prefaces their findings with a lengthy list of similar arguments and studies
related to the question they're setting out to solve. Generally, these studies all provide evidence that
face and object recognition are carried out by different processes in the brain in different specialized
areas. The author of this paper wanted to dive into this question more specifically, aiming to find the
precise area that this face recognition is processed in. Is there a specific area of the brain that is
responsible for recognizing faces? More specifically, is the fusiform gyrus the area ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The second experiment produced results that showed this activation (found in the fusiform gyrus),
was higher for normalized faces than scrambled faces or for houses. In the third experiment, the
author found that this area responded higher for passive faces at different angles when the hair of the
subject was concealed than for human hands. This study also showed that the fusiform face area
responded just as highly to faces with hair present or concealed. Ultimately, the fusiform face area
responds selectively to faces in a variety of cases: gray scale, front facing, two–toned, three–quarter
view, and with hair concealed. The activation region was found in the fusiform gyrus and immediate
surrounding areas, mainly lateralized in the right hemisphere.
4. How does the evidence support the author's arguments?
The results of the first task (analyzing areas of the ventral pathway that responded significantly
higher to faces), showed that there was one specific region that showed consistently higher
activation for faces than for objects throughout every subject: the right fusiform gyrus. These results
also showed opposite activation patterns for object viewing, providing a double dissociation for face
and object recognition. This provides evidence that higher activation during facial recognition is not
simply due to faces requiring a higher processing power than objects, but instead

Use of Levetiracetam in the Treatment of Epileptic Seizures
Introduction Epilepsy is a serious global problem that affects approximately 1% of people
worldwide (1). Epilepsy is a chronic condition of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by
epileptic seizures, which can affect physical and mental functions (2). Epileptic seizures are
unprovoked reoccurring episodes of abnormal, excessive, or hypersynchronis neuronal activity in
the CNS (2). The treatment options of epilepsy include medications called antiepileptic drugs (AED)
and surgeries based on individuals' specific diagnosis and background (1). The AED Keppra®, S–
enantiomer of α–ethyl–2–oxo–1–pyrrolidine acetamide, or Levetiracetam (LEV) is Food and Drug
Administration (FDA)–approved for the treatment and prevention of epileptic ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The ability of HVA Ca2+ channels to alter the firing pattern of postsynaptic neurons makes
regulation of HVA Ca2+ channels a means to help prevent hypersynchronis neuronal activity and
prevent epileptic seizures. The synaptic vesicle protein 2A (SV2A) is a protein in neurons that is
important for calcium–regulated secretion of neurotransmitters (6). The protein SV2A regulates
neurotransmitter release by affecting the expression of the Ca2+ sensor protein synaptotagmin, by
reducing Ca2+–mediated vesicle exocytosis and thereby reducing neurotransmitter release (6). The
ability of SV2A to affect synaptotagmin expression and reduce exocytosis makes regulation of
SV2A binding a means to prevent abnormal neuronal activity and prevent epileptic seizures. The
ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are intracellular Ca2+ channels that are a cellular mediator for calcium–
induced calcium release (CICR) (1). The inositol 1,4,5–triphosphate receptors (IP3R) are
intracellular Ca2+ channels that act as a cellular mediator for CICR through their activation of a
second messenger that causes the release of Ca2+ (1). In the process of CICR Ca2+ is released from
intracellular storage (3). In the development of epilepsy, a dysregulation of intracellular calcium
([Ca2+] i) by inositol 1,4,5–triphosphate receptors (IP3R) and ryanodine receptors (RyR)

Language And Speech Processing Throughout Modern Humans Essay
The ability of speech and language processing has always been a defining factor in what makes
humans unique, especially from their closest living relative primates. This paper will analyze the
differences in modern human brain structure and the common chimpanzee brain structure (pan
troglodytes) in regards to the language and speech function. Language and speech processing in
modern humans will focus on two parts of the cerebral cortex: Broca's area and Wernicke's area,
which is responsible for generating speech and language and receiving speech and language
respectively. Broca's area will be analyzed by the two parts it is made up of: Brodmann area 44,
associated mainly with phonological tasks and Brodmann area 45, associated mainly with semantic
processing. Wernicke's area receives and interprets speech and language and is shown to be
connected to Broca's area by a neuronal tract known as the arcuate fasciculus. The structure of the
common chimpanzee brain is shown to have homologous structures to Broca's and Wernicke's area
in modern humans, but is significantly smaller, and is unable to perform the same developed
functions as modern humans in regards to language and speech, but is much more limited and
simplified. Speech and language are key components that distinguish modern humans from their
close relatives primates. In the modern human brain, located on the frontal lobe, is the motor cortex
or strip that regulates the facial and oral muscles. They include the tongue,

Autism Spectrum Disorder Essay
Even with a substantial amount of research on the complex concept of Autism Spectrum Disorder
(ASD), much remains unknown when it comes to the root of this disorder. Study after study have
shown that there are multiple brain regions of the ASD brain that act differently when compared to
typically developing (TD) individuals. One area of the brain that researchers have shown an interest
in is the fusiform gyrus. The fusiform gyrus is a section of the brain that is located between the
parahippocampal gyrus and the lingual gyrus medially and the inferior temporal gyrus laterally on
the basal temporal and occipital cortex ( ). The reason why this area is critical to understanding the
ASD brain is its functions in color processing, word ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the case of ASD facial recognition, experimenters use fMRI to look at the FFA levels of
activation to compare to the TD control groups.
A common methodology for exploring the concept of face emotion recognition in individuals with
ASD is the comparing of brain activation in response to human faces compared to nonhuman faces
or objects. A key aspect of social cognition is being able to look at someone's face and interprete
how that individual is feeling. This is something that has been continuously found to be lacking in
individuals with ASD. Multiple studies have been conducted using human emotions, the faces of
animals, and inanimate objects such as houses. Whyte (2016) used animal faces an human faces to
measure activity in the high–functioning autism (HFA) brain compared to the TD brain. The fMRI
scan results exhibited overall hypoactivation in the HFA individuals when compared to the TD
control individuals. Another interesting discovery that has been found consistently is the the
FHA/ASD individuals displayed higher activation in the facial–functioning areas when viewing
animals than human faces. When compared to the TD participants, the HFA individuals did not have
any difference in the morphology of the brain structures under observation (Whyte, Behrmann,
Minshew, Garcia, & Scherf, 2016) The fact that a difference in activation was found without any
difference in the

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (OCD)
The final category would be those who hoard. Hoarding was once categorized as a symptom of
OCD, but "has since been recognized as its own separate disorder based on evidence indicating
differences in cognitive and behavioral processing, course of illness, neurobiological basis and
treatment response" (Mattina & Steiner, 2016). But since the action of hoarding can be seen in many
with OCD, it is important for it to still be mentioned. Hoarders are those who have trouble throwing
anything away because of fear it may be needed or become useful in the future. These objects can
include anything and everything, including used paper napkins, useless gadgets or even rotten food.
These items eventually pile up and grows bigger and bigger until their ... Show more content on
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This line of treatment is only used when everything else has been tried and none of it has worked.
Furthermore, it is also only used on those with OCD so severe they are unable to function properly.
In other words, this form of treatment is the last resort. Psychosurgery is a medical procedure that is
conducted on the patient's brain. First, it is important to know that those who have OCD have an
abnormality or overactivity in their anterior cingulate gyrus. The cingulate gyrus is a component of
the limbic system and is involved in the processing emotions, behavior and regulation of autonomic
motor functioning. So because of that, the goal of the surgery is to stop the anterior cingulate gyrus
from its activity in the patient, which in theory will be able to allow the patient to function normally
again. This surgery helps the patient feel less anxiety and distress. But it should be recognized that
this surgery, like the majority of other surgeries, comes with both minor and severe possible

Causes Of Neururodevelopmental Disorders
Based on the fact that ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder, there have been multiple studies
researching the neuroanatomical abnormalities found in ASD individuals. There have been a number
of those abnormalities associated with ASD (Donovan & Basson, 2017). In the most recent study,
Donovan & Basson, found the frontal cortex and the amygdala of an ASD individual's brain during
the early postnatal period has a tendency to overgrow followed by normalization, or even decrease,
in volume and cellularity, when compared to neurotypical individuals (2017). They described the
function of the frontal cortex of the brain to be in charge of executive functions (e.g., higher–order
cognitive processing–planning, decision making, working memory, ... Show more content on
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From the results of the study, the investigators found that the participants with ASD showed lower
correct response rates for recognizing affect via emotional words and facial emoticons. They also
found that the part of the brain, called the fusiform gyrus, in the participants with ASD had a greater
activation rate during emotional word tasks when compared to their typically developing peers.
Interestingly, the investigators found that the fusiform gyrus of the participants with ASD had less of
an activation response to facial emoticons when compared to their typically developing peers (Han
et al., 2014).
Studies have also shown that the difficulty that individuals with ASD have with the acquisition and
understanding of humor is the effect of their deficits in theory of mind (ToM) (Semrud–Clikeman &
Glass, 2008; Jaegher, 2013; Samson, 2013; Whyte, Nelson, & Scherf, 2014; Wu et al., 2014).
Theory of mind can be defined as the ability to understand and assign beliefs, traits, and emotions to
oneself and others, in other words the ability to put oneself in another's shoes (Semrud–Clikeman &
Glass, 2008; Samson, 2014; Wu et al., 2014). ToM is a complex linguistic ability (Wu et al., 2014).
Emerich et al., found from their study that there was no specific sequence in the individuals with
ASDs' reasoning through the text of

The neuroanatomical approach to aphasia relies on the...
The neuroanatomical approach to aphasia relies on the localization of lesions on the brain in
addition to clinical observation in order to classify patients according to syndromes. For example,
according to the neuroanatomical approach, Broca's aphasia, which us usually associated with a
lesions on the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain, has cardinal features that distinguish is
from other fluent and non–fluent aphasias (e.g. poor repetition, poor repetition and poor naming
with good auditory comprehension). Within this model, the general assessment process of an
aphasic person consists of: (1) Gathering the client's case history (e.g. a car accident that results in
an injury to the anterior superior frontal lobe (in the case of ... Show more content on
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Further, different researchers and clinicians may classify patients differently as there as not clear–cut
boundaries which separate classifications. In addition, patients have good and bad days, such that a
patient's performance on a particular day may be a cause for misclassification of aphasia.
Furthermore, a patient can evolve from one classification to another during the course of recovery
(e.g. from Broca's Aphasia to Anomic Aphasia). Also, there are varying degrees within a particular
classification. For example, Patrick had mild Broca's aphasia, while some patients who have Broca's
aphasia can barely speak at all (i.e. severe Broca's aphasia). Nevertheless, the classification system
according to syndromes is useful when describing groups of people, rather than individuals, for
example in research. However, it can also be valuable in clinical practice because it is an efficient
way of best describing a person's aphasia profile. For example, in a clinical setting it may be useful
to use a classification (e.g. Wernicke's aphasia), when talking to the client or the client's family. This
is because it can give them a reasonable sense of what is happening to them without overwhelming
them (although in most cases, it is still overwhelming), and because in many cases people and their
families prefer to have an answer rather than not knowing what has happened. Additionally, it is
possible that a person may fall into a particular

Why College Football Should Not Be Banned
It is April 28 and everyone is excited to watch the annual National Football League draft. Families
have friends and families over and there is an abundance of food. College football players are eager
to get drafted and watchers have their own bets of who is going to get drafted. Although the
National Football League draft is a huge source of entertainment and is an American tradition,
college football should not be allowed because it is an endangerment to the student health, it
enforces the need for harmful drugs, and it does not benefit the players after college.
College football is an endangerment to the student's health. Although many believe that all college
sport has the same injury risk, the do not. According to Hunt et al, "College ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
According to National Collegiate Athletic Association research "only the National Football League
draft one point seven percent of college football players." (2) This show how little percentage of
college players that become professional. This does not help the players who do not get drafted
because they did all the work and they suffer a lot. So, everything they went through now useless
because they were not picked in the draft. Now, they must now try hard to get a job even though
their goal was the National Football League. Also, college football is not beneficial because it
decreases player moral standers. For example, the practice of illegal hazing. According to
Institutional and Organization Liability for Hazing in Intercollegiate and Professional Team "More
student– athlete are being prosecuted under states anti–hazing laws. (87) This shows that these
athletes are practicing ritual like this that are putting them in jail and ruining their image also none
of these happen in the workplace. Also, according to Humphrey "only athletic team membership
made a significant contribution to the prediction of sexual aggression severity." So, Humphrey is
saying that being part of a football team will have a higher chance of being sexual aggression
because it is an athletic team, this is ruining their

Reflection On The Self Essay
Article Reflections on the Self: A Case Study of a Prosopagnosic Patient (2008) and Movement
Cues Aid Face Recognition in Developmental Prosopagnosia (2015) give a review on visual
agnosia. These article's main focus is on prosopagnosia. Sigmund Freud coined the term visual
agnosia back in 1891. Visual agnosia is the ability to see an image and store it, but there is an
impairment in visually recognizing the specific object. There are a plethora of subtypes of visual
agnosia, which include prosopagnosia (the inability to recognize faces), achromatopsia (the inability
to distinguish different colors), landmark agnosia (the inability to recognize buildings and places),
etc. If one suffers from visual agnosia they can have multiple subtypes of associative agnosia. In the
review case study, The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat (Sacks, 1995), Dr. P was diagnosed
with Prosopagnosia, Landmark Agnosia, and Simultagnosia. The first article, Reflections on the
Self: A Case Study of a Prosopagnosic Patient by Stanley Klein, Rami Gabriel, Cynthia Gangi and
Theresa Robertson take a look at a patient who suffers from prosopagnosia and how it can affect
one's personality. Researchers were curious to see if there was a relationship between brain activity
of someone with prosopagnosia and their personality. They were interested in this specific topic
because of the historical importance of the brain's process of facial recognition. Based on evolution,
an important mechanism for survival

Effects Of Aging On The Elderly Population
Introduction
Several aspects of aging can be debilitating for the elderly population, as they often include
loneliness, general decline, and lack of social support (Anisman, 2014). The senior population,
already at large, is projected to surpass that of other age groups and increase the burden on our
health care system. Only a small proportion of individuals age successfully, with the majority
experiencing a spectrum of cognitive impairments that can manifest into neurodegenerative
disorders. This is due to a broad range of factors, including genetic and environmental determinants
that ultimately shape the aging process. The hippocampus, a subcortical brain region, is responsible
for mediating memory consolidation, spatial navigation, and to some extent learning (Kolb and
Whishaw, 2013). It is particularly impaired in old individuals and the focus of numerous
experiments aimed at delaying degeneration or alternatively enhancing neurogenesis. This limbic
structure is readily influenced by the stress response, namely the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal
(HPA) axis (Kolb and Whishaw, 2013). Aged individuals tend to exhibit elevated levels of
corticosteroids, which promote hippocampal deterioration (Cameron and McKay, 1999). A specific
region within the hippocampus, the dentate gyrus, is unique in that it not only succumbs to such
effects but continues to undergo neurogenesis (Cameron and McKay, 1999). However, the rate of
neurogenesis is reduced if not inhibited in old

Excitatory Essay
The excitatory (glutamatergic) inputs to the hippocampal formation originate from the neurons in
the different layers of the entorhinal cortexcite {1}cite{2}cite{3}cite{4}cite{5}. The axons,
projecting from the superficial second layer of entorhinal cortex to dentate gyrus and CA3,
constitute for the perforant pathway and are strictly unidirectional and excitatory cite{2}. Whilst
layer II neurons of entorhinal cortex innervate the neurons found in dentate gyrus and the CA3
neurons, neurons from layer III of entorhinal cortex send their axons to subiculum and CA1. The
granule cells, synonymously called principal cells, are located in the granule cell layer of dentate
gyrus. Here, the granule cells send their axons, the mossy fibers, through ... Show more content on
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Axons projecting from the infrapyramidal blade enter the CA3 in the infrapyramidal bundle before
perforating the pyramidal cells to aborize the stratum lucidum. Mossy fiber axons projecting from
the suprapyramidal blade aborize stratum lucidum first after they enter the suprapyramidal bundle.
This is another example of the high organizaton of the neuronal trajectory in hippocampal
formationcite{2}cite{6}. There are two main pathways originating from the CA3 neurons, the first
is the direct projection of these neurons towards the fimbria and the second is the subsequent
collateral pathway created by the backward propagation of the diverged CA3 axonscite{1}. These
axons, known as Schaffer collaterals, are the main excitatory input to the pyramidal cells located in
the first region of hippocampus proper, an innervation mediated through the distal dendritic spines
of the CA1 neurons in an "en passant" fashioncite{7}, where the synaptic transmission occurs along
the axonal bodycite{8}cite{7}. The CA1 neurons, in turn, innervate other hippocampal areas by
sending their axons toward the fimbria, subiculum and contralateral hippocampus via the
associational commisural pathway and forms the main output of the hippocampal

Effect Of Ginger On The Brain Of Diabetes Induced Diabetic...
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Neuroprotective effect of ginger in the brain of streptozotocin–induced diabetic rats
Gehan El–Akabawy∗, Wael El–Kholy
Menoufia University, Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Menoufia,
Egypt a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 3 August 2013
Received in revised form 17 January 2014
Accepted 31 January 2014
Keywords:
Ginger
Diabetes
Brain
Histology
Immunohistochemistry s u m m a r y
Diabetes mellitus results in neuronal damage caused by increased intracellular glucose leading to
oxidative stress. Recent evidence revealed the potential of ginger for reducing diabetes–induced
oxidative stress markers. The aim of this study is to investigate, for the first time, whether the
antioxidant properties of ginger has beneficial effects on the structural brain damage associated with
diabetes. We investigated the observable neurodegenerative changes in the frontal cortex, dentate
gyrus, and cerebellum after 4, 6, and 8 weeks of streptozotocin (STZ)–induced diabetes in rats and
the effect(s) of ginger (500 mg/kg/day).
Sections of frontal cortex, dentate gyrus, and cerebellum were stained with hematoxylin and eosin
and examined using light microscopy. In addition, quantitative immunohistochemical assessments of
the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)–, caspase–3, glial
fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and Ki67 were performed. Our
results revealed a protective role of

Bilingualism Is Harmful And Interferes With Healthy...
Bilingualism, or an ability to use at least two languages (American Speech–Language–Hearing
Association, 2004), has been studied for decades. A quick literature search will reveal that research
on this topic goes back as far as the 1800s. This is hardly surprising considering that at least half of
the world's population is bilingual (Grosjean, 2010, p. 13), with some European countries reaching
rates as high as 99 percent (European Commission, 2006, p. 3). Interestingly enough, until relatively
recently it was believed that exposure to multiple languages at home was to blame for producing
mental retardation as measured by intelligence tests (Goodenough, 1926, p. 393). The assumption
that bilingualism is harmful and interferes with healthy development has been since debunked by
research findings indicating exposure to two languages from birth enhances cognitive function
(Bialystok, Craik, Luk, 2012). Although similar misguided perceptions have not vanished
completely from our society and many educators and clinical practitioners continue to advise
parents against exposing their children to multiple languages (Bialystok et al., 2012), bilingualism
has become a desired trait in an increasingly globalized world and an integral part of the educational
system in many countries. A growing body of research supports the idea that speaking multiple
languages results in several benefits. Bilingualism has been shown to enhance mental flexibility,
generally understood as the

What Is The Overall Process Of Memory Formation
Memories include many different stages of memory formation such as sensory memory, short term
memory and long term memory, which requires an intensive cascade of neuronal signalling in many
different regions in the brain in order to process. This brain–wide process of memory formation
functions with each element of a memory (sights, sensations, emotions, sounds) being encoded in its
respective region of the brain that processes these responses and result in a reactivation of the same
neural patterns during recollection. Thus, this demonstrates the overall process of memory formation
which incorporates its ability to encode, store and recall information (Gibbs, M. E. Ng, K.
T.,1977).
Regions in the brain that associate with the neuroanatomy

Are Faces Special?
Are faces special? Critically evaluate the evidence that we have evolved a specialised neural
network dedicated to processing faces. Brian Marron, 11461992, SF TSM.
INTRODUCTION
Processing faces is extremely important to humans as social beings. We are able to put and identity
on thousands of faces (Gazzaniga, 2002) with ease, something we might take for granted. The value
of this ability can be better understood when the world is viewed through the eyes of somebody with
prosopagnosia, the inability to recognise faces. The following quotation from David Fine, a
prosopagnosic describing the difficulty associated with the disorder.
I often fail to recognise my children or even my wife ... I have failed to acknowledge friends and,
more ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They also said that to allow for this better discrimination, the stimulus must be presented upright.
People demonstrate the Face Inversion Effect because they are expert at processing faces. And so,
Diamond and Carey asserted faces are not special, merely exemplars of a homogenous group of
stimuli of which people tend to be expert. Greebles were created by Gauthier and Tarr (1997) from a
need to control for expertise in experiments. Greebles are a group of homogeneous stimuli that do
not resemble faces but do have several properties of faces like symmetry and the same number of
features. They conducted experiments to see how dependence on configural information increased
with expertise. They agreed with Diamond and Carey that faces are not intrinsically special but that
humans are particularly expert at processing faces and so rely more on configural information to
discriminate between one person and another.
However, Gauthier Tarr and Diamond Carey's methodologies have come under much criticism
especially from Robbins and McKone. Robbins and McKone argue that they have found major
flaws in the expert hypothesis. The differing views of these psychologists are outlined in fiery
academic exchanges (Robbins McKone 2007), (McKone Robbins, 2007), (Gauthier
Baukach, 2007). As a

Stem Cell Aging
Stem cell aging is still a controversial topic among scientists. One of the most popular explanations
of stem cell aging is defined by the decrease in ability to proliferate or self–renew. Cell regulation
mechanisms that have been related to aging are senescence and apoptosis. Leading evidence has
identified the relationship between p16INK4a, a tumor suppressor protein, and aging in neural stem
cells. Neural stem cells regenerate neurons and glial cells as required by the organisms, but an
increase in p16INK4a declines the ability of the stem cells to function as they were able to do
initially. Such relationship has been established, however, the mechanism for how this occurs is
currently unknown. In an attempt to address this unidentified ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
These anti cancer mechanisms depend on p53 and p16ink4 activation, which appear to be
responsible for aging similarly to how their failure is associated with cancer. Some other possible
mechanisms include heritable mutations and environmental changes in stem cell surroundings.
These assumptions are so controversial because adequate models to test the function of these cells
have yet to be constructed. Therefore, there I no direct way of determining that stem cell aging is the
decrease in stem cell function through regeneration degradation. However, it is an idealistic
assumption due to the resulting data of stem cells from other tissues that identify the association
between proliferating decline in tissue and aging. A study involving rodents identified that a decline
in the quantity of neurons being produced by neural stem cells would decrease with telomere
dysfunction. Senescence is a form of growth arrest that is induced by stimuli like loss of telomere
function, reactive oxygen species, some DNA damage, and tumor suppressor activation.
As shown by the study when telomere function is not regulated they lose normal ability to
regenerate which, thus far has been presumed as aging. Recent studies on neural stem cells have
leading information on the mechanism of aging using p16INK4a overexpression and oppression in
mice. The results indicated that an increase in p16INK4a contributes to a decrease in proliferation
and function

Earworm Essay
Can't Get It Out of My Head
Chances are, you have listened to the radio at some point today. Maybe even right now, you are still
humming a song you heard hours ago. You are not alone. Many people today suffer from the same
thing you are experiencing. This sometimes annoying experience is called an earworm. The
earworm effect is very real.
What is an earworm? An earworm, a term derived from the German 'ohrwurn' is defined as a
'cognitive itch' or 'the inability to dislodge a song and prevent it from repeating itself in one's head
(Synapse). It is also described as a catchy piece of music that continually repeats itself through a
person's mind. Some people may hear the term and think that it is a myth. Others may hear the term
and take it ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The earworm strongly relies on the phonological loop which is a short–term memory system located
in your auditory cortex. The phonological loop can best be pictured as a record that plays over and
over again without stopping, but only playing a part of the song. That may be a reason why you only
remember parts of the song; the phonological loop is a short–term memory system. A lot of the time,
people may get the song stuck in their head because they can't remember how the song ends, only
the particular chorus of the song. Another reason why you may only remember parts of the song is
because certain pieces of music may have properties that excite an abnormal reaction in the brain.
(Synapse) The songs will most likely be catchy, which will contribute to the earworm effect. There
may also be a psychological reason to why some songs are more likely to stick in your head. They
include memory triggers, emotional states, and stress levels. Psychologist researchers may even be
able to treat patients with memory loss by studying music memory. Tracking an earworm in a
scientific setting can be a near–impossible task. (BrainFacts). How long does the earworm effect
last? According to researchers, about 98% of all people have gotten songs stuck in their heads at
one time or another.

Data Measured On The Control Condition Essay
Results
Compared to the control condition, a significant decrease in the level of NRS pain scores was
related to the hypnotic hypoalgesia condition (2.9+/–0.4, P0.0001) compared to the control
condition (5.4+/–0.3). During all three experimental conditions, the NRS scores were reported as a
mean and compared using an analysis of variance (ANOVA). The analyses of the NRS is a
collection of quantitative data measured on an interval obtained from the participants throughout the
duration of the experiment (Abrahamsen et al., 2010).
The areas of the brain associated with the pain matrix, the right posterior insula and the primary
somatosensory cortex, showed a significant increase in activation in response to the control
condition during the painful pin prick stimulus compared to no painful stimulus. There was also a
significant increase in activation of the right posterior middle temporal gyrus, the middle frontal
gyrus, the left supramarginal gyrus, and the precentral gyrus. A portion of the posterior insula was
significantly activated during the hypnotic hypoalgesia condition with the painful prick stimuli. The
painful prick stimulation in the hypnotic hyperalgesia condition showed an increase in the activation
of the inferior parietal lobule, the precentral gyrus, and the posterior insula (Abrahamsen et al.,
2010).
The data collected from the fMRI scans was quantitative biological data measured on a ratio scale
looking at regions of the pain matrix, including the

The Symbiotic Relationship Between Hippocampal Volume And...
Introduction There has been a myriad of research investigating the symbiotic relationship between
hippocampal volume and major mood disorders (MDD) like depression. Despite being one of the
most prevalent illnesses, the underlying pathogenesis and neurobiology of MDD remain unclear. It
has been widely documented that patients with a MDD tend to have smaller hippocampal volumes
(Sheline et al., 1996, Nordanskog et al., 2014). The hippocampus is known to be closely affiliated
with the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, which is required to produce glucocorticoids that are
involved in stress mechanisms (Chen et al., 2010). Moreover, stressful life events are considered a
critical risk factor in the development of depression (Zannas et al., 2013). This, coupled with
findings which suggest that depressed patients have difficulty with hippocampal–dependent learning
and memory tasks (Gould et al., 1998, Gould et al., 2007), accentuates the relationship between the
hippocampus and MDD being mediated through stress. There are various hypotheses regarding what
may cause hippocampal volume diminution as a consequence of stress. Major propositions involve
hippocampal neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus (Becker and Wojtowicz, 2007), glial numbers,
apoptosis (Czeh and Lucassen, 2007) and granule neuron numbers (Boldrini et al., 2013). Other
mechanisms that may affect hippocampal volume like neuropil reduction, shifts in fluid balance
between the ventricles and brain tissue and changes in

Alzheimer's Disease And Aging: A Case Study
As we age, everyone's memory occasionally gets worse, so how can we tell the difference between
signs of Alzheimer's disease and normal aging? Jack et al (1997) mentioned that MRI hippocampal
volumetric measurements provide a sensitive marker of the medial temporal lobe (MTL)
neuroanatomical degeneration in AD early in the disease process as they found that the medial
temporal lobe (MTL) structures volume was significantly smaller in Alzhaimeric patients than
control subjects (Jack et al., 1997). Originally, the decline was attributed to cortical neuronal loss,
but some studies have shown that there is no significant loss of cortical neurons with age. There are
a clear changes related to normal aging such as layer 1 of neocortex becomes thinner

Essay On Hippocampal Formation
The cells of the hippocampal formation are very sensitive to the effects of stress and the serotonin
neurotransmitter protects against stress and ultimately depression. An experiment was conducted to
test if stress causes depression by the decreasing number of pyramidal cells of the hippocampus
(Praag et al.; 2000). Removing a non–stressed rats' adrenal glands resulted in an increase in
neurogenesis in the hippocampus. This is due to the removal of cortisol, which is normally released
from the adrenal glands based on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Glucocorticoids the
stress hormones that are released from the adrenal glands; therefore, without the adrenal glands
there is less cortisol acting at the hippocampus and preventing the neurogenesis. The ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Neurogenesis of the hippocampus is blocked by stress, more specifically blocking the N–Methyl–
D–aspartate (NMDA). DL–2–amino–5–phosphonovaleric acid (APV) is a NMDA receptor
antagonist and has binding sites on the NMDA receptor. APV is very similar to cortisol, so when a
person has high serum cortisol, cortisol impedes the functions of the NMDA receptor (Baker
Kim, 2002). Gould studied this NMDA receptor, by using tree shrews. Giving the tree shrews an
injection of an NMDA receptor antagonist, to investigate if there is an effect in the production of
cells in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. After the injection, the tree shrews were given an
overdose of an anesthetic that euthanized them. The following day the scientists removed their
brains and the antagonist stimulates the production of the granule cells of the dentate gyrus (Gould
et. al; 1997). This experiment helped to show that the NMDA receptor is critical for the
neurogenesis of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, therefore, if cortisol is interfering with the
NMDA receptor, the new neuron growth is

Prosopagnosia Essay
Prosopagnosia is defined as the difficulty in recognizing an individuals face; it is broken down into
3 main types; Apperceptive prosopagnosia, associative prosopagnosia and developmental
prosopagnosia. Perception is an important aspect when recognizing faces, without recognizing the
stimulus (face) you would not be able to identify a person. Therefore the individuals who sufferer
from this disorder is unable to accurately recognize a face whether that be the face of a familiar
person such as a family member or close friend, the face of a famous person, or even their own face.
This paper will look at prosopagnosia in greater detail, it will explain the 3 main types, as well as
give insight as to why face recognition is important in our ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Individuals who suffer from developmental prosopagnosia have had impairments of face recognition
since birth; nonetheless they have no sign of any neurological damage in their brain (Bate, Haslam,
Jansari, amp; Hodgson, 2009, p. 392). Schmalzl, Palermo, Harris, amp; Coltheart (2009), stated
that the perception and recognition of faces is one of the most important function of our visual
system, and given its importances face processing has become one of the more prominent areas of
reseach in cognitive neuroscience (p. 287). Sensory basis for prosopagnosia are important to be
looked at, because it tells you what areas of the brain are associated.
Prosopagnosia occurs due to the damage to the fusiform face area, in the fusiform gyrus that is
located in the temporal lobe and damages to the to the occipital face area located in the occipital
lobe (Grüter, Grüter, amp; Carbon, 2008, p. 82). However in individuals who experiences
developmental prosopagnosia seem to have normal fusiform face area functioning. Grüter, Grüter,
amp; Carbon (2008), stated that the right fusiform face areas in most individuals reacts the
strongest to the stimulus of a face (p.83). A connection

Outline Informative Speech
NAME : Syifa Fadhilah Hamid CLASS : 12 DBM SUBJECT : Outline Informative Speech
SPECIFIC PURPOSE : to inform my audience about Deja Vu CENTRAL IDEA : to inform my
audience about the theory of Deja Vu. Including what, how and the effect about Deja Vu .
INTODUCTION: Attention Getter : I can't remember any things well while I thought something
happened to me, I feel like I ever seen something but I don't know when it was or where it was. And
I also feel like I've been somewhere but I don't know when it was. It's only like I ever do that but I
unable to really remember when and how the earlier experience occured in detail. Reveal the topic :
I often feel this thing, when this happened to me, I was really confused and feel like at the ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to the brain expert, actually for the most part of our information that we received was
saved on our subconscious mind and have not appear to the surface yet. Then only a fraction from
the information that we received is really we remember and relize about it. 1. The disruption of
memory access, Sigmund Freud believe that someone will experience Deja vu when he
spontaneously remember with the unconscious memory, because that memory is at the subconscious
area, then the content of that memory is not appear because blocked by the conscious mind.
Therefore we only feel the familiar feeling. 2. The second theory is ponsel theory, a scientist named
Dr. Alan Brown ever held the experiment with his friend Elizabeth. And according to the result of
their experiment, this theory said that when our attention is disturbed or split, then in subliminal our
brain will save the information about the condition arround us but we are not really realize it.
Subliminal is something happened in our unconscious mind. So when our attention is getting focus
then all of the information arround us which saved subliminal will called out until we feel more
familiar. This theory is the same with the ice chunks below the water surface which arise to above
water surface. B. (Subpoint) Next is about the other theory, named by The memory from other
sources. Because in this theory said that our brain saved a lot of memory which come from various
aspect in our life, like the movie

Visual Object Agnosia And Prosopagnosia
Agnosia is defined as the inability to recognize objects through the processing of sensory
information, which means there is no deficit in semantic memory or problems with naming objects.
An individual suffering from agnosia still possesses all the relevant semantic information tied to a
precept, but they cannot recognize the precept when it is presented to them and therefore trigger the
recall of said information. There are many types of agnosia, but this essay will focus on visual object
agnosia and prosopagnosia. The former is the inability to recognise objects: patients suffering from
visual object agnosia do not have impaired vision, and in some cases can even copy the object they
are seeing (patient H.J.A., Humphreys Riddoch, 1987) or draw it from memory (patient D.F.,
Milner Goodale, 1992), but are unable to recognize it when they see it. In the latter,
prosopagnosia, patients cannot recognise faces of familiar individuals, and have to rely on other
characteristics such as their voice or clothing to recognize them. Patients suffering from
prosopagnosia can either acquire it through a lesion in relevant brain areas (acquired prosopagnosia)
or for less understood reasons have it from birth, in which case it is termed developmental
prosopagnosia. The study of patients with agnosia is integral to the field of visual recognition, as the
specifics of their deficits can provide great insight into the ways our brain processes information; for
example, the location of

The Hippocampus: Part Of The Brain
Lots of research had been accomplished by those researchers, and they eventually proved that
healthy students are the better learners. According to a 2010 essay penned by Charles Basch of
Colombia University, physical activities not only increased oxygen to flow to the brain, but also,
students became responsible for learning, memory and higher thinking.
Research concerning brain is continuously conducted by scientists. They proved that physical
activity is likewise in charge of the regulation of the glucose levels. Examination has demonstrated
that the amount of glucose tolerance in the body has an impact on the extent of the hippocampus.
Hippocampus is part of the brain that is thought to be the centre of emotion and memory.
Notwithstanding this, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
She took this simple observation and transformed it into a course at New York University in which
students perform aerobic exercises for one hour followed by one hour of lecture.
To see if exercise did improve memory and learning, Suzuki also planned another course where the
lecture was the same, but there was no exercise component. At the beginning of the semester,
students from both classes performed a simple test to measure the activity of the part of the brain
responsible for learning. The dentate gyrus is a region of the hippocampus critical for retaining long
term memory for facts and events. Exercise can target the dentate gyrus. At the end of the semester,
the students performed the test again.
After comparison, The results were significant, Suzuki mentioned. The test requires students to
pick a certain geometric shape from other similar geometric shapes. Student who had exercised
completed the test faster than their counterparts. Most studies examine the relationship between
exercise and learning in the elderly; very few focus on young age

Essay On Aging
Young blood reverses cognitive function and synaptic plasticity in aging
Aging causes structural and functional changes in brain. As aging population has become a burden,
it is essential to study aging brain aiming to maintain cognitive integrity. Previous studies indicated
that young blood improves the function of stem cells in organs including brain by heterochronic
parabiosis model. However, data is lacking whether regeneration or beyond occurs by this model.
The authors Villeda et al., hypothesized that aged animal exposed to young blood can counteract
aging process and rejuvenate brain cognitive function. Therefore, the authors conducted research to
examine within molecular, structural, functional, and cognitive aspects. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, young blood is capable to increase number of dendritic spine in aging dentate gyrus. The
authors took extracellular electrophysiological recording to examine the functional change from
hippocampus on parabionts. They found isochronic parabionts stayed at baseline level for long–term
potentiation, but can be maintained at above baseline level in heterochronic parabionts. From these
functional results, they concluded that young blood is capable to potentiate synaptic plasticity in
aged mice.
To understand the cognitive changes, they further used contextual fear conditioning and radial arm
water maze paradigms (RAWM) to study aging effect to hippocampus related learning and memory.
Mice injected with young plasma had increased freezing response in contextual, but not cued,
learning and showed significant improvement on fear memory. They also exhibited enhancement in
learning and memory in finding hidden platform location. On the other hand, no change was
observed for aged mice and aged mice injected with aged plasma. Interestingly, these effects were
reduced by heat denaturation. Thus, the heat–labile factors from young blood may rejuvenate
cognitive ability for the aged mice.
An important discovery is that Creb plays a key role of transcriptional activity in signaling synaptic

Transgenic Mouse Model
What is the major problem being addressed by this study?
This research aims at understanding how Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE) develops after traumatic
incidents such as stroke. In our lab, we use a transgenic mouse model in order to selectively delete
PTEN from dentate granule cells (DGC) found in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus– where TLE
forms. The experiments have shown that deleting PTEN causes abnormalities amongst DGC, causes
mice to display seizures, and is sufficient to cause TLE. By utilizing advanced imaging and neuron
reconstruction we are able to test the leading hypothesis that abnormal DGC drive TLE.
What specific questions are you asking and how will you attempt to answer them?
In this proposal we want to know: 1) the relationship between abnormal cell morphology and
temporal lobe epilepsy (the most common type of post–stroke epilepsy) 2) What are the other
intrinsic and extrinsic cell changes that occur in this model 3) Whether there is an alteration in the
ratio of excitatory and inhibitory inputs to the cell that can ultimately drive TLE. To answer these
questions, we will use a transgenic mouse model and neuroimaging techniques to reconstruct the
abnormal neurons and then analyze them using neuron tracing software. Additionally, we will use a
transgenic mouse combined with advanced tracing techniques to trace abnormal cell inputs. ... Show
Two thirds of patients who suffer from stroke develop TLE. The proposed study will test whether
the pathology of PTEN Knockout cells is a primary driver for TLE or merely a secondary change
following seizures. Additionally, we will characterize the different natural and extraneous cell
changes that occur within a genetic model of an epileptic animal. This will ultimately help delineate
mechanisms by which temporal lobe epilepsy develops. This will guide creating treatment and
intervention for patients with post–stroke

Schizophrenia Is A Heterogeneous Illness
Schizophrenia is a heterogeneous illness that may involve several pathophysiological gender
differences. For men and women incidence risk peaks between 20–29 years of age, and women also
have a second risk peak between 30–39 years of age. Negative symptoms including low motivation
and withdrawal are more frequent in men and appear up to six years before diagnosis (Hafner, 2005;
Hafner et al., 1993; Morgan et al., 2008). Women exhibit greater levels of depression and positive
symptoms including sexual inappropriateness, impulsivity and delusions (Mendrek et al., 2015; Van
der Werf et al., 2014). Sex differences in either age of onset or prevalence of negative symptoms are
not as evident in patients that have a family history of schizophrenia (Bergen et al., 2014; Hafner et
al., 1998).
Estrogen has been proposed to have a possible protective role that may account for a later age of
disease onset in women, when levels are lowest during post–response rates to antipsychotic drugs
are also higher in women menopause (Allen et al., 2013; Hafner, 2005; Leung M.D. Chue M. R.
C. Psych., 2000; Ochoa et al., 2012). Obstetric complications have also been connected with an
increased risk of developing schizophrenia, an earlier age of disease onset, poorer outcomes and
ventricular enlargement. Such complications appear to be more frequent and severe in males than
females. (Allen et al., 2013; Dalman et al., 1999; Kelly et al., 2004). Prenatal exposure to influenza
5 months before birth

The Human Brain Gains And Loses Information Through...
How Does Neuroplasticity Occur in the Hippocampus?
Joe Hamlin
March 21, 2016
Abstract
The human brain gains and loses information through neuroplasticity in the hippocampus and in
other parts of the brain due to different stimuli acting upon those parts. Neuroplasticity is defined as
the ability to rearrange the function to stimulation from external or internal sources. Adaptive and
maladaptive neuroplasticity occur mainly in the hippocampus and its structural changes are due to
stress, aging, and metabolism. Electroconvulsive therapy, overexpression of mineralocorticoids, and
metabolism effects are results of adaptive neuroplasticity; aging and stress show forms of
maladaptive neuroplasticity in the hippocampus. In conclusion, stress, aging, and metabolism show
that neuroplasticity does occur in the hippocampus. Further areas of study could focus on how
alcohol affects the hippocampus's ability to form new memories or its effects on neuroplasticity
Introduction
The human brain learns and forgets information through neuroplasticity in the hippocampus and
other parts of the brain due to different stimuli acting upon those parts. Neuroplasticity takes place
in various levels known as the cellular, population, network and behavioral levels (Bartsch and
Wulff 2015). Neuroplasticity is defined as the brain's ability to rearrange its structure or its function
due to stimulation from external or internal sources (Bartsch and Wulff 2015). Neuroplasticity can
be beneficial, or

The Importance Of Writing And Creative Writing
In today's modern world, more and more schools are incorporating electronics in the curriculum, but
these changes are having immeasurable effects on students including the demise of their
handwriting. The art of handwriting has been around since its invention in 4000 BC, and according
to Anne Chemin, Mesopotamia was more than likely the birthplace of handwriting (Chemin). In
recent years, however, handwriting has become more of a chore than a learning utensil to students.
But at what cost? Handwriting is the most beneficial way for everyone to learn and develop their
brains and creative processes. Today we will delve into how handwriting increases brain activity.
Second, we will examine the educational advancements of handwriting. Finally, we will explore
how handwriting improves creative thoughts.
First, let's start with the brain. When people handwrite, the brain is utilized in numerous areas.
Handwriting is a difficult task that requires a great deal of brain activity. According to Edouard
Gentaz, a professor of developmental psychology at the University of Geneva, to handwrite, the
brain must process the feel of the pencil and paper and the correct movement of the writing utensil
to create complex shapes and letters (Chemin). For example, in an article for Science Direct,
Gabriella Munoz cites a 2012 investigation led by Karin James, a psychologist at Indiana State
University, it was concluded that three different parts of your brain are stimulated when writing.
This

Protein Synthesis
Modulation of adult neurogenesis by growth and neurotrophic factors
In vitro and in vivo studies have provided substantial evidence that the formation of new neurons in
the adult brain is modulated by various extrinsic factors, including growth and neurotrophic factors,
hormones, neurotransmitters, environment, stress and injury. Given that trophic factors are
important regulators of the generation, differentiation and survival of adult–born neurons and that
stimulation of endogenous neurogenesis or implantation of neural stem cells have been discussed as
a treatment opportunity for neurobiological disorders, it is important to determine whether levels of
these factors and their associated receptors change with aging and/or disease. The following ... Show
BDNF mRNA expression in the postnatal hippocampus is not altered during the human lifespan,
whereas TrkB–TK+ and TrkB–TK– transcript levels are significantly reduced [112]. BDNF protein
levels are not changed with age in the human hippocampus and SEZ; however, BDNF levels were
significantly higher in hippocampus compared to SEZ [60]. Several studies have demonstrated that
BDNF influences differentiation, maturation and survival of inhibitory and excitatory neurons [106,
113, 114], enhance synaptic plasticity [115–117] and potentiates excitatory synaptic
neurotransmission [118]. Intraventricular injections of BDNF into adult rats increased the number of
BrdU–positive cells in the SEZ, RMS and the olfactory bulb with the majority displaying a neuronal
phenotype [119], whereas others could not replicate these findings and observed no effect in mice,
and even reduced proliferation in the rat SEZ [120]. As methodological discrepancies between these
studies could not explain the different results, further studies need to clarify the role of BDNF on
endogenous neurogenesis.
Adult neurogenesis in schizophrenia
Dysregulated adult neurogenesis has been linked to neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression,
dementia and schizophrenia etiology [121–123]. Schizophrenia is a multifactorial psychotic illness
characterized

Prosopagnosia, Or Face Blindness
Prosopagnosia, or face blindness, is a neurological disorder that prohibits an individual's ability to
recognize faces. It can occur in several different manners, each with different levels of severity.
Some who have it are simply unable to recognize faces of familiar individuals, while those with
more severe forms cannot distinguish between objects and faces, or even their own reflection. In
some of these cases, it can be accompanied by issues with recognizing other objects such as cars or
places.
The history of Prosopagnosia goes all the way back to the 19th century, though the first instance of
the actual term came about in 1947. Joachim Bodamer recorded a case of a 24 year old male who,
after having been shot in the head, became unable to recognize his family, friends, and even his own
face. With the disorder having been named, more studies arose, allowing for a growth in the theories
behind how it worked. For instance, the knowledge of it having many different manifestations
implies that it is based on a complex process with many stages to the perception of faces. This led to
determining where it takes place in the brain.
Not many studies have been done on the prevalence of this disorder, but one in the German student
population says about 1 in 50 people are affected by prosopagnosia. While little is known on the
subject, a few notable cases have been made apparent. These include Hubert Dreyfus, Jane Goodall,
Victoria, the crown princess of Sweden, and Oliver Sacks, a

The Hippocampus And Its Effects On Patients With Depression
The hippocampus is smaller in patients with depression. The smaller hippocampus is thought to be
diminished because of a persistent exposure to stress hormones, like cortisol, which impacts the
growth of nerve cells. The hippocampus is highly susceptible to stress, perhaps because the
protracted ontogeny or the high amount of glucocorticoid receptors (Uma Rao et al.; 2010). The
longer the patient has depression, or the more episodes of depression the patient experiences, the
smaller the hippocampal volumes become. Stress correlates with the smaller hippocampus,
researchers used twenty–nine patients with depression, twenty–two patients with severe depression
and thirty–two control patients. All patients were around the same age, physically healthy, alcohol
and drug free, and did not have any other kind of mental illness like bi–polar disorder, autism, or
schizophrenia. Structural imagery was used to obtain the images of each patients' entire brain. Then
an image was aligned with the anterior commissure and posterior commissure as well as the borders
of the left and right hippocampus. From the MRI scans and using a formula the hippocampal
volumes were figured. All of the patients were followed up on, every 6–months for up to five years.
The results were conclusive, the severely depressed and the depressed patients had smaller
hippocampal volumes when compared to the control subjects. The left hippocampus of the patients
was smaller by 4.9% and 4.2%, respectively, while the

Narrative Essay About Deja Vu
Unraveling Déjà Vu
Because of scientists, humanity took a few strides towards answering some mysteries in the world,
but it also came up with new mysteries. We are curious beings, always demanding for answers to the
things we do not know so we try to see the potential of our curiosity by challenging ourselves with
questions. On the other hand, discovering something is not just about advancement but to
understand something deeply which will gradually grow into insight. With the desire to see what this
world can offer, discoverers are born.
As a curious person, I want to unravel many things, but déjà vu is the one that piqued my interest the
most because it often occurs to me and to the people I know. I am also bothered because there are
explanations that déjà vu is a part of reincarnation. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There's this occurring sensation which feels like something already happened. Whenever we meet
new people, we feel a strange connection with them. There's this person who I often see in school,
his face is oddly familiar so there's something bothering me that I have known him before. It is as if
a connection has been established but I cannot point it out exactly. There's this another experience
where I went to my cousin's funeral. I looked at the landscape of the cemetery and it was déjà vu. I
was just standing there stunned for a mere second. During that time, my mind was fogged and it's
like two worlds collided and time stopped.
Through years, scientists and psychologists develop cognitive tests to challenge the human brain
because it is the most complex organ in our body. It can even make us feel deja vu. For the most
intriguing part, déjà vu is being shrugged because it is just thought of as a 'mere sensation'. Déjà vu
may be more than that for some people experience déjà vu and they have a feeling that their brain is
letting them see their

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