Austin Journal of Genetics and Genomic Research
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Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics. Gregory Mendel is considered the father of genetics. The DNA molecule is composed of two polymers of nucleotides arranged in a double helix structure, as proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953. Abnormal chromosome numbers or mutations in single genes can cause conditions like Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, and sickle cell anemia. Genetic testing involves extracting DNA from cells, cutting the DNA into fragments, separating the fragments, and analyzing them to diagnose genetic diseases.
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Introduction to Genetics
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. It examines how traits are inherited through genes on chromosomes, which are faithfully transmitted from parents to offspring via gametes, maintaining generational continuity. Genetic variation arises from mutations in the DNA sequence, which are heritable changes that provide the basis for natural selection and evolution. Genetics also explores DNA and gene function at the molecular level using techniques like restriction enzymes, vectors, recombinant DNA, and cloning.
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This document provides definitions for genetic terms and discusses the practical applications of genetics in nursing. It defines key terms like DNA, genes, alleles, and more. It then discusses how genetics knowledge helps nurses to understand disease basis, enable early diagnosis, contribute to health promotion, prevent genetic conditions, manage genetic care and counseling, provide referrals, and address social/ethical issues. Nurses need genetics training to identify, support, refer and care for people with genetic disorders or risk.
cytoplasmic inheritance
Inheritance due to genes located in cytoplasm is called cytoplasmic inheritance.
Since genes governing traits showing cytoplasmic inheritance are located outside the nucleus and in the cytoplasm, they are referred to as plasmagenes.
Non Mendelian inheritance
Non Mendelian inheritance
Maternal (organelle) inheritance
Infectious inheritance
Maternal effect on phenotype
1. modern genetics (2010)
Modern genetics began in the 1920s with the study of DNA and its role in heredity. Griffith's experiments in 1928 showed that genetic material could be transferred between bacteria, transforming harmless bacteria into deadly ones. Hershey and Chase's experiments in 1952 provided proof that DNA, rather than proteins, carries the genetic instructions of organisms. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by Watson, Crick, and Franklin to be a double helix held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs.
Cytoplasmic inheritance
1. Cytoplasmic inheritance involves the transmission of traits controlled by DNA in organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts from the maternal parent alone.
2. Early studies showed that traits like shell coiling in snails are determined by the mother's genes, not the individual's own genes.
3. Sonneborn described the inheritance of cytoplasmic particles called "kappa" in Paramecium and their interaction with nuclear genes.
Maternal inheritance of chloroplasts dna
This document summarizes maternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA. It discusses how chloroplasts are inherited in the variegated four o' clock plant Mirabilis jalapa. Flowers on green branches produce only green offspring, while flowers on white branches produce only white offspring, demonstrating maternal inheritance of chloroplasts. Flowers on variegated branches produce offspring with mixed phenotypes, due to segregation of chloroplast types in the egg cell cytoplasm. This cytoplasmic inheritance demonstrates that in some plants, chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally rather than paternally.
CYTOPLAMICS INHERITANCE
K. Sathish Kumar of Alagappa University will give a seminar on cytoplasmic inheritance using the example of the 4 o'clock plant. Cytoplasmic inheritance involves genes or genetic material outside the nucleus that is passed from parents to offspring. In the 4 o'clock plant, the color of leaves (green, pale green, or variegated) is determined by organelles called plastids, not nuclear genes, and offspring inherit the plastid type from their mother plant regardless of the pollen parent. Therefore, variegation in this plant is an example of cytoplasmic inheritance controlled by self-replicating plastids outside the cell nucleus.
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Introduction to Genetics
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. It examines how traits are inherited through genes on chromosomes, which are faithfully transmitted from parents to offspring via gametes, maintaining generational continuity. Genetic variation arises from mutations in the DNA sequence, which are heritable changes that provide the basis for natural selection and evolution. Genetics also explores DNA and gene function at the molecular level using techniques like restriction enzymes, vectors, recombinant DNA, and cloning.
Application of Genetics in Nursing Practice
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cytoplasmic inheritance
Inheritance due to genes located in cytoplasm is called cytoplasmic inheritance.
Since genes governing traits showing cytoplasmic inheritance are located outside the nucleus and in the cytoplasm, they are referred to as plasmagenes.
Non Mendelian inheritance
Non Mendelian inheritance
Maternal (organelle) inheritance
Infectious inheritance
Maternal effect on phenotype
1. modern genetics (2010)
Modern genetics began in the 1920s with the study of DNA and its role in heredity. Griffith's experiments in 1928 showed that genetic material could be transferred between bacteria, transforming harmless bacteria into deadly ones. Hershey and Chase's experiments in 1952 provided proof that DNA, rather than proteins, carries the genetic instructions of organisms. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by Watson, Crick, and Franklin to be a double helix held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs.
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3. Sonneborn described the inheritance of cytoplasmic particles called "kappa" in Paramecium and their interaction with nuclear genes.
Maternal inheritance of chloroplasts dna
This document summarizes maternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA. It discusses how chloroplasts are inherited in the variegated four o' clock plant Mirabilis jalapa. Flowers on green branches produce only green offspring, while flowers on white branches produce only white offspring, demonstrating maternal inheritance of chloroplasts. Flowers on variegated branches produce offspring with mixed phenotypes, due to segregation of chloroplast types in the egg cell cytoplasm. This cytoplasmic inheritance demonstrates that in some plants, chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally rather than paternally.
CYTOPLAMICS INHERITANCE
K. Sathish Kumar of Alagappa University will give a seminar on cytoplasmic inheritance using the example of the 4 o'clock plant. Cytoplasmic inheritance involves genes or genetic material outside the nucleus that is passed from parents to offspring. In the 4 o'clock plant, the color of leaves (green, pale green, or variegated) is determined by organelles called plastids, not nuclear genes, and offspring inherit the plastid type from their mother plant regardless of the pollen parent. Therefore, variegation in this plant is an example of cytoplasmic inheritance controlled by self-replicating plastids outside the cell nucleus.
Introduction to genetics
This document provides an introduction to genetics and key genetic concepts. It discusses chromosomes and that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, with 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Genes contain the code for making proteins and are located along chromosomes. DNA is composed of nucleotides that form a double helix and carries the genetic code. The genetic code uses four nucleotide bases that bond together in DNA to form genes. Genes can mutate, and mutations can be passed down to offspring. The document also describes genetic inheritance patterns including autosomal dominance, co-dominance as seen in blood types, and sex-linked inheritance such as with color blindness.
Introduction to genetics_for_beginners
- Human body cells contain 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs, with one chromosome of each pair inherited from each parent. Chromosomes are made of DNA and contain genes arranged in linear order.
- The structure of DNA is a double helix, and genes on chromosomes encode for proteins. Alterations in genetic material, such as mutations to genes or chromosomes, can alter the proteins produced and cause disease.
- A karyotype describes the complete chromosome makeup of an individual, including the number and appearance of chromosomes, and any abnormalities.
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This document discusses inheritance and provides examples of cytoplasmic inheritance. It describes Mendelian inheritance where genes located on chromosomes segregate in predictable ratios. Non-Mendelian inheritance involves genes located in the cytoplasm that are transmitted from the female parent only, with no segregation in F2 generations. Examples discussed include chloroplast inheritance in Mirabilis jalapa, kappa particles determining toxicity in Paramoecium, and shell coiling determined by cytoplasmic proteins in snails. Cytoplasmic male sterility is also summarized, where mitochondrial mutations cause pollen to be non-functional but are maternally inherited.
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Extra nuclear inheritance
This document discusses extra-nuclear or cytoplasmic inheritance in various organisms. It provides examples of cytoplasmic inheritance in the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, the fungus Neurospora crassa, and the ciliate Paramecium aurelia. In C. reinhardtii, strains resistant and sensitive to streptomycin show maternal inheritance of resistance. In N. crassa, the "poky" mitochondrial mutation is maternally inherited. P. aurelia can harbor symbiotic bacteria that are maternally transmitted and allow the killing of sensitive strains. The document concludes with a definition and brief history of cytoplasmic inheritance.
Genes
1. The document discusses key concepts in genetics including genes, heredity, genetic disorders, and major figures and discoveries in the field.
2. Gregor Mendel is credited with discovering genes through his experiments with pea plants in the 1860s.
3. Modern techniques like gene therapy, genetic engineering, and the Human Genome Project aim to treat genetic diseases and further understand human genetics.
CYTOPLASMIC INHERITANCE
Contents
Introduction
Mitochondrial or maternal inheritance
Shell coiling in Snail(Limnaea pregra)
Plastidial or chloroplast inheritance
Leaf variegation in Mirabilis Jalapa
Inheritance Involving Infective Particles
Kappa particles in Paramecium
Signififcance
References
Molecular biology
Plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules that are self-replicating and carried by bacteria. They range in size from 2-100kb and can contain genes for antibiotic resistance. Bacterial genomes exist as a single circular chromosome that is highly condensed and packaged. Viruses have RNA or DNA genomes that are either single or double-stranded. Their genomes must be able to be recognized and expressed by their host cell. Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from endosymbiotic bacteria and contain their own genomes that are maternally inherited and range in size and structure between species. Plant mitochondrial DNA can be much larger than animals.
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Johann Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics. Through experiments with pea plants in the 19th century, he discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance and that genes are inherited as distinct units from each parent. His work laid the foundation for modern genetics. Key concepts include that each trait is determined by a gene pair, offspring inherit one gene from each parent, and genes assort independently. Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring through DNA, the molecule that carries the genetic code. DNA contains genes that code for proteins and direct growth and development. Chromosomes carry DNA and genes, and the number and type of chromosomes determine sex and are inherited according to Mendel's laws.
Extra nuclear inheritance
Cytoplasmic or extranuclear inheritance involves the transmission of traits controlled by genes located outside the cell nucleus, such as in mitochondria or chloroplasts. This form of inheritance does not follow Mendel's laws and instead is maternally inherited, with traits expressed based on the phenotype of the female parent. Examples discussed in the document include mitochondrial inheritance in humans, cytoplasmic factors influencing disease susceptibility in mice, and chloroplast genes controlling leaf color in plants.
Carbon Dioxide Sensitivity in Drosophilla
This document discusses CO2 sensitivity in Drosophila flies. It notes that while most Drosophila are not affected by exposure to CO2, a sensitive strain was discovered that becomes paralyzed upon brief exposure. Sensitivity is inherited maternally, being passed from females to their offspring but rarely from males. The document further explains that sensitivity in this strain is caused by a virus-like particle called sigma found in the fly's cytoplasm, and can be transmitted to normal flies by injection of extract from sensitive flies. Sigma is dependent on temperature and initial levels for its reproduction. It is a non-chromosomal, cytoplasmic element that can induce sensitivity regardless of the fly's genetic makeup.
Cytoplasmic Inheritance
Cytoplasmic or non-nuclear inheritance involves the transmission of genes located outside the nucleus in organelles like chloroplasts and mitochondria. There are several mechanisms of cytoplasmic inheritance in seed plants and gymnosperms. In angiosperms, mechanisms include exclusion or degradation of organelles in the generative or sperm cells. Studies using techniques like DAPI staining and Southern blotting validated that cytoplasmic DNA is lost during pollen maturation in maternally inherited plants. Cytoplasmic inheritance is significant for traits like cytoplasmic male sterility and generation of novel varieties by organelle-specific mutagens.
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1. The document discusses principles of genetics including concepts like heredity, variation, Mendelian genetics, and branches of genetics like cytogenetics and molecular genetics.
2. It summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants from 1856-1863 which led to his principles of segregation, independent assortment, and dominance and the rediscovery of his work in 1900.
3. Key genetics terminology is defined including genes, alleles, genotype and phenotype, and symbols and concepts used in pedigrees like dominant/recessive alleles and Punnett squares are explained.
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This document discusses several genetics concepts and experiments including: coiling of shells in snails and their dextral and sinistral forms, the kappa particle found in Paramecium studied by T.M. Sonneborn in 1938, leaf variegation patterns in Mirabilis jalapa plants, and types of male sterility including genetic male sterility.
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This document defines several key genetic terms and concepts:
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- Genotypes are an individual's genetic makeup at a locus, while phenotypes are the observable traits that result from gene expression.
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This document provides an introduction to genetics and key genetic concepts. It discusses chromosomes and that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, with 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Genes contain the code for making proteins and are located along chromosomes. DNA is composed of nucleotides that form a double helix and carries the genetic code. The genetic code uses four nucleotide bases that bond together in DNA to form genes. Genes can mutate, and mutations can be passed down to offspring. The document also describes genetic inheritance patterns including autosomal dominance, co-dominance as seen in blood types, and sex-linked inheritance such as with color blindness.
Introduction to genetics_for_beginners
- Human body cells contain 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs, with one chromosome of each pair inherited from each parent. Chromosomes are made of DNA and contain genes arranged in linear order.
- The structure of DNA is a double helix, and genes on chromosomes encode for proteins. Alterations in genetic material, such as mutations to genes or chromosomes, can alter the proteins produced and cause disease.
- A karyotype describes the complete chromosome makeup of an individual, including the number and appearance of chromosomes, and any abnormalities.
Cytoplasmic inheritance and male sterility
This document discusses inheritance and provides examples of cytoplasmic inheritance. It describes Mendelian inheritance where genes located on chromosomes segregate in predictable ratios. Non-Mendelian inheritance involves genes located in the cytoplasm that are transmitted from the female parent only, with no segregation in F2 generations. Examples discussed include chloroplast inheritance in Mirabilis jalapa, kappa particles determining toxicity in Paramoecium, and shell coiling determined by cytoplasmic proteins in snails. Cytoplasmic male sterility is also summarized, where mitochondrial mutations cause pollen to be non-functional but are maternally inherited.
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This document provides an introduction to genetics, including the basics of DNA structure, genes, chromosomes, heredity, and Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations for genetics. It explains that DNA contains the genetic instructions passed down from parents to offspring, and that genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes that influence traits. It summarizes Mendel's key conclusions from his experiments, including the laws of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
Extra nuclear inheritance
This document discusses extra-nuclear or cytoplasmic inheritance in various organisms. It provides examples of cytoplasmic inheritance in the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, the fungus Neurospora crassa, and the ciliate Paramecium aurelia. In C. reinhardtii, strains resistant and sensitive to streptomycin show maternal inheritance of resistance. In N. crassa, the "poky" mitochondrial mutation is maternally inherited. P. aurelia can harbor symbiotic bacteria that are maternally transmitted and allow the killing of sensitive strains. The document concludes with a definition and brief history of cytoplasmic inheritance.
Genes
1. The document discusses key concepts in genetics including genes, heredity, genetic disorders, and major figures and discoveries in the field.
2. Gregor Mendel is credited with discovering genes through his experiments with pea plants in the 1860s.
3. Modern techniques like gene therapy, genetic engineering, and the Human Genome Project aim to treat genetic diseases and further understand human genetics.
CYTOPLASMIC INHERITANCE
Contents
Introduction
Mitochondrial or maternal inheritance
Shell coiling in Snail(Limnaea pregra)
Plastidial or chloroplast inheritance
Leaf variegation in Mirabilis Jalapa
Inheritance Involving Infective Particles
Kappa particles in Paramecium
Signififcance
References
Molecular biology
Plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules that are self-replicating and carried by bacteria. They range in size from 2-100kb and can contain genes for antibiotic resistance. Bacterial genomes exist as a single circular chromosome that is highly condensed and packaged. Viruses have RNA or DNA genomes that are either single or double-stranded. Their genomes must be able to be recognized and expressed by their host cell. Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from endosymbiotic bacteria and contain their own genomes that are maternally inherited and range in size and structure between species. Plant mitochondrial DNA can be much larger than animals.
Interesting Facts about Genetics
Johann Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics. Through experiments with pea plants in the 19th century, he discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance and that genes are inherited as distinct units from each parent. His work laid the foundation for modern genetics. Key concepts include that each trait is determined by a gene pair, offspring inherit one gene from each parent, and genes assort independently. Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring through DNA, the molecule that carries the genetic code. DNA contains genes that code for proteins and direct growth and development. Chromosomes carry DNA and genes, and the number and type of chromosomes determine sex and are inherited according to Mendel's laws.
Extra nuclear inheritance
Cytoplasmic or extranuclear inheritance involves the transmission of traits controlled by genes located outside the cell nucleus, such as in mitochondria or chloroplasts. This form of inheritance does not follow Mendel's laws and instead is maternally inherited, with traits expressed based on the phenotype of the female parent. Examples discussed in the document include mitochondrial inheritance in humans, cytoplasmic factors influencing disease susceptibility in mice, and chloroplast genes controlling leaf color in plants.
Carbon Dioxide Sensitivity in Drosophilla
This document discusses CO2 sensitivity in Drosophila flies. It notes that while most Drosophila are not affected by exposure to CO2, a sensitive strain was discovered that becomes paralyzed upon brief exposure. Sensitivity is inherited maternally, being passed from females to their offspring but rarely from males. The document further explains that sensitivity in this strain is caused by a virus-like particle called sigma found in the fly's cytoplasm, and can be transmitted to normal flies by injection of extract from sensitive flies. Sigma is dependent on temperature and initial levels for its reproduction. It is a non-chromosomal, cytoplasmic element that can induce sensitivity regardless of the fly's genetic makeup.
Cytoplasmic Inheritance
Cytoplasmic or non-nuclear inheritance involves the transmission of genes located outside the nucleus in organelles like chloroplasts and mitochondria. There are several mechanisms of cytoplasmic inheritance in seed plants and gymnosperms. In angiosperms, mechanisms include exclusion or degradation of organelles in the generative or sperm cells. Studies using techniques like DAPI staining and Southern blotting validated that cytoplasmic DNA is lost during pollen maturation in maternally inherited plants. Cytoplasmic inheritance is significant for traits like cytoplasmic male sterility and generation of novel varieties by organelle-specific mutagens.
introduction to genetics
1. The document discusses principles of genetics including concepts like heredity, variation, Mendelian genetics, and branches of genetics like cytogenetics and molecular genetics.
2. It summarizes Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants from 1856-1863 which led to his principles of segregation, independent assortment, and dominance and the rediscovery of his work in 1900.
3. Key genetics terminology is defined including genes, alleles, genotype and phenotype, and symbols and concepts used in pedigrees like dominant/recessive alleles and Punnett squares are explained.
Basic genetics /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy
Welcome to Indian Dental Academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
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State of the art comprehensive training-Faculty of world wide repute &Very affordable.
Chapter 19 Heredity Lesson 4 - Examples of Gene and Chromosome Mutations and ...
Mutations are permanent changes in DNA that can be caused by environmental factors like radiation or random chance during DNA replication. There are two main types of mutations: gene mutations, which cause conditions like albinism and sickle cell anemia, and chromosome mutations, such as Down syndrome. Sickle cell anemia is caused by a mutation that results in abnormal hemoglobin, causing red blood cells to take on a sickle shape and leading to health issues. While normally harmful, the sickle cell mutation provides resistance to malaria, giving carriers an advantage in malaria-prone regions.
Cytoplasmic inheritance
This document discusses several genetics concepts and experiments including: coiling of shells in snails and their dextral and sinistral forms, the kappa particle found in Paramecium studied by T.M. Sonneborn in 1938, leaf variegation patterns in Mirabilis jalapa plants, and types of male sterility including genetic male sterility.
GENE MUTATIONS POWERPOINT PRESENTATION
This document discusses various types of gene mutations including point mutations, frameshift mutations, substitutions, insertions, and deletions. It provides examples of diseases caused by mutations like sickle cell disease, phenylketonuria, albinism, cystic fibrosis. Mutations can be caused by copying errors, chemicals, viruses, and radiation. Screening programs can help detect diseases like phenylketonuria in newborns. Overall, the document covers the basic concepts of gene mutations, the types of mutations that can occur, examples of diseases caused by mutations, and some mutagenic agents.
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Basic genetics /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy
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Chapter 19 Heredity Lesson 4 - Examples of Gene and Chromosome Mutations and ...
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This document provides an outline for a chapter on genetics and heredity. It begins with an introduction to the topic and definitions of key terms such as DNA, genes, alleles, and genotypes. It then discusses medical genetics, including human chromosomes, Mendelian inheritance, modes of inheritance such as autosomal recessive and dominant traits as well as sex-linked inheritance. The document also covers chromosomal and genetic anomalies including mutations, aneuploidy involving extra or missing chromosomes, and structural anomalies involving breaks or deletions of chromosomes. It concludes with information on genetic testing and counseling.
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This document provides an introduction to genetics. It discusses how genetics is the study of heredity and variation. Key figures who contributed to genetics include Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel, and scientists who confirmed that DNA is the genetic material like Oswald Avery. There are different branches and scopes of genetics such as cytogenetics, molecular genetics, genomics, and behavioral genetics. Methods to study genetics include pedigree analysis, karyotyping, planned experimental breeding, and twin studies. The document concludes with applications of genetics in fields like medicine, agriculture, and genetic engineering.
2. cardenas introduction
Multifactorial inheritance is caused by a combination of environmental factors and mutations in multiple genes. Common chronic diseases like high blood pressure are often multifactorial, with genetic and environmental components both playing a role. While some genes may increase susceptibility, no single gene determines these conditions. They can occur in people with or without affected family members, and concordance rates in twins do not follow Mendelian patterns.
Najaf bio 4 4 (2)
Chromosomes contain DNA and are found in pairs in eukaryotic cells like humans who have 23 chromosome pairs. Genes are segments of DNA that control traits and can exist in different forms called alleles. Mutations are random changes in genetic material that can cause conditions like sickle cell anemia. Meiosis produces gametes with half the normal chromosome number through two cell divisions followed by crossing over and separation of homologous chromosomes. Genetic engineering techniques like polymerase chain reaction and DNA profiling allow manipulation and analysis of DNA.
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Austin Journal of Genetics and Genomic Research
- 1. GENETICS
- 2. WHAT IS GENETICS?? Thai branch of biology that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of hereditary transmission and the variation of inherited characteristics among similar or related organisms.
- 3. FATHER OF GENETICS Gregory Mendel
- 5. Composed of 2 polymers of nucleotides. Polymers are oriented in antiparallel. Molecule resembles a spiral staircase of complementary base pairs. DNA MOLECULE
- 6. “Double helix” proposed by Watson and Crick (1953). Antiparallel backbones. Complementary base pairing: Adenine to Thymine Cytosine to Guanine STRUCTURE OF DNA
- 7. Abnormal number of chromosomes -Down’s syndrome, Edwards syndrome, Deletion -Cri Du chat, Williams syndrome Sex Chromosome Abnormalities -Turner syndrome, Klinferlter’s syndrome Single Gene Mutations -Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle Cell anaemia EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONS CAUSED BY DNA CHANGES
- 8. GENETIC TESTING AND PROFILING Take a sample of cells (blood, hair root) Extract the DNA from cells Cut up the DNA Separate the DNA fragments Analyse the DNA fragments
- 9. CLASSIFICATION OF GENETIC DISEASES Single gene defects/ Mendelian disorders Disorders with multifactorial or polygenic inheritance Cytogenetic disorders Disorders showing a typical patterns of inheritance
- 10. VARIOUS DISEASES ASSOCIATED Diabetes mellitus Hypertension Gout Congenital heart disease Neural tube defects Skeletal abnormalities Coronary artery disease Bipolar disorder
- 11. DIAGNOSIS OF GENETIC DISEASE FISH(Fluorescence in situ hybridisation) Conventional cytogenetic analysis Molecular analysis
- 12. THANKYOU