Motivation by Amitabh Mishra

Motivation
Amitabh Mishra, Ph.D 1

Why?
 Why a student who find it difficult to spend 1 hour on
internet for searching subject content, happily spends
many hours on social networking cites hanging out with
friends?


Meaning and Definition
 Motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’ which
means ‘to move’ or ‘to energize’ or ‘to activate’.

 Motivation is “a complex force starting and keeping a person at
work in an organisation. Motivation is some thing that moves a
person to action and continues him in course of action already
initiated.”- Dubin
 Motivation refers to “the states within a person or animal that
drives behavior toward some goals.”- Morgan and King
 Motivation refers to “all the internal conditions that stir up
activity and sustain activity of an individual.” - Guilford
L M Prashad &Web

 Motivation is “the driving force within individuals by
which they attempt to achieve some goal in order to
fulfill some needs or expectation.”

Nature and Characteristics
of
Motivation

Nature and Characteristics of Motivation
 Based on motives.
 Affected by motivating.
 Goal directed behavior.
 Related to satisfaction.
 Complex process & Not fully understood.
 Energizes behavior.
 Directs behavior.
 Psychological.
 Unique to each and every person.
 Pushes to work hard .
 Provide strength to get up and keep going.
Amitabh Mishra, Ph.D 7L M Prashad &Web

 Based on motives: Motivation is based on motives of the individuals.
Motives are the feelings of restlessness or lack.
 Affected by motivating: Motivating is a term which implies that one
person (manager) induces another (employee) to engage in action
(work behavior) by ensuring that a channel to satisfy motives
becomes available and accessible to employees.

Motivation and Behavior
Need Tension
Goal-directed
Behavior
Goal-
Fulfillment/
Need
Satisfaction
Favorable environment
L M Prashad &Web

Need Tension
Goal-
directed
Behavior
Non-
fulfillment
of Need
Frustration
Defense
MechanismBarriers
Aggression Withdrawal Compromise
Need Non-Fulfillment and Defense Mechanism
L M Prashad &Web

Theories of Motivation
Motivation
Theories
Traditional
Theories
Maslow’sTheory
Herzberg’sTheory
Mc Clelland’sTheory
Other Theories: Alderfer’s ERG Theory
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Contemporary
Theories
Vroom’s Expectancy
Theory
EquityTheory
ReinforcementTheory
Self DeterminationTheory
Self EfficacyTheory

TraditionalTheories of
Motivation
Traditional
Theories
Maslow’sTheory
Herzberg’sTheory
Mc Clelland’sTheory
OtherTheories:Alderfer’s ERGTheory
McGregor’sTheory X andTheoryY

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Hierarchy of Need theory was proposed by Abraham
Maslow (Social Scientist).
 Needs have certain hierarchy/priority.
 According to Maslow human needs can be arranged in a
hierarchy as-
1. Physiological Needs.
2. Safety Needs.
3. Social Needs.
4. Esteem Needs.
5. Self Actualization Needs.
L M Prashad & Robbins
14Amitabh Mishra, Ph.D

• As the basic needs are satisfied, individuals seek to
satisfy higher needs.
• If the basic needs are not met efforts to satisfy higher
needs are postponed.
• The behavior of individual is determined by his strongest
need.
• Satisfied needs will no longer motivate.
• Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level
that a person is on the hierarchy.

Physiological Needs
 Physiological needs are strongest needs.
 Physiological needs include-
◦ Hunger
◦ Thirst
◦ Shelter
◦ Other body necessity.
 In organizational context it may include-
◦ Lunch break,
◦ Reasonable salaries.

Safety Need
 When the physiological needs are reasonably satisfied, individuals
are motivated to satisfy their safety need.
 Safety need is need for protecting from physical and emotional harm
and dangers or self preservation.
 In organisational context Safety Needs may include-
◦ Safe working environment,
◦ Job security, and
◦ Freedom from threats.

Social Need
 After first two needs are reasonably satisfied, social need
become important in the hierarchy.
 Man is social being. He need to belong and accepted by various
groups.
 It may include-
◦ Affection.
◦ Belongingness.
◦ Acceptance.
◦ Friendship.

Esteem Need
 Satisfaction of esteem need produces feeling of self
confidence, prestige, power, and control.
 Esteem need may include-
◦ Self respect.
◦ Autonomy.
◦ Achievement.
◦ Status.
◦ Recognition.
◦ Attention.

Self-actualisation Need
 Self-actualisation is a drive to become what we are capable
of becoming.
 It is a need to maximise one’s potential, what ever it
may be.
 It may include-
◦ Growth
◦ Achieving our potential.
◦ Self fulfillment.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory/ Hygiene Theory of
Motivation

Herzberg’sTheory of Motivation
 Fredrick Herzberg (Psychologist) proposed Two Factor Theory of
motivation.
 Herzberg’s theory of motivation is also known as-
◦ Two FactorTheory of Motivation.
◦ HygieneTheory of Motivation.
 He proposed that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction,
as was traditionally believed.
 Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not
necessarily make the job satisfying.

 The ‘opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction’ and the ‘opposite of
dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction’.
 Herzberg proposed that there are two category of needs which
affect the behavior in different ways.
1. Hygiene Factor/Maintenance Factor/Extrinsic Factors.
2. Motivational Factors/Intrinsic Factors.
HygieneFactors
Dissatisfied
Not
Dissatisfied
MotivationFactors
Satisfied
Not Satisfied

1. Hygiene or Maintenance Factor
 Hygiene Factor are also called Maintenance/Extrinsic/
Environmental factors .
 According to Herzberg there are 10 hygiene factors-
Hygiene
Factors
Company policy & administration
Technical Supervision
Interpersonal relations with subordinate.
Interpersonal relations with peers.
Working conditions
Salary/Pay
Status
Job Security
Personal life
Working ConditionL M Prashad & Robbins

 Maintenance factors are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of
satisfaction in employees.
◦ Any increase beyond this level will not provide any satisfaction to the
employees.
◦ However, any cut below this level will dissatisfy them.
 Hygiene factors produce no growth in workers output, they only prevent
losses in workers performance.
 When Hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied
(neither they will be satisfied).
 These are not the intrinsic part of job, but they are related to the
condition to which the job is performed.

2. Motivational/Intrinsic Factors
 According to Herzberg there are six factors that motivate
employees.
Motivational
Factors
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Advancement
Possibility of Growth
Responsibility

 An increase in these factors will satisfy the employees;
however, any decrease in will not affect their level of
satisfaction.
 These increase level of satisfaction in the employees,
can be used in motivating them for higher output.

McClelland’s NeedTheory of Motivation

 David C. McClelland (Psychologist from Harvard
University) and his associates identified three types of
basic motivating needs.
 He classified these needs as-
1. Need for Power (n/PWR).
2. Need for Affiliation (n/AFF).
3. Need for Achievement (n/ACH).
McClelland
Need
Theory
Need for
Power
(n/PWR).
Need for
Affiliation
(n/AFF).
Need for
Achievement
(n/ACH).

1. Need for Power (n/PWR)
• The need to influence the behavior of others.
•The need for power is the need to make others behave
in a way in which they would not have behaved
otherwise.

 McClelland and his associates found that, people with
high need for power-
◦ Are-
 Forceful
 Outspoken
 Demanding
◦ Generally seek positions of leadership.
◦ Have great concern for exercising influence and control.
◦ Involve in conversation.

2. Need for Affiliation (n/AFF)
 The desire for interpersonal relationship.
 Need for Affiliation is the desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships.

 People with high need for affiliation (n/AFF)-
◦ Are concerned with-
 Maintaining pleasant relationship.
 Enjoying sense of intimacy and understanding.
 Enjoy consoling and helping others in trouble.
 Usually derive pleasure from being loved and tend to avoid pain of
being rejected.

3. Need for Achievement (n/ACH)
• The Need of Achievement is the desire to excel and succeed.
• People with high n/ACH
• Take moderate risk.
• Desires immediate and precise feedback.
• More concerned with intrinsic rewards than material rewards.
• Will not feel satisfied unless he has put his maximum efforts in
completing the task.

CONTEMPORARY
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Contemporary
Theories
Vroom’s ExpectancyTheory
EquityTheory
ReinforcementTheory
Self DeterminationTheory
Self EfficacyTheory

EquityTheory of Motivation

EquityTheory of Motivation
 People are motivated to maintain fair relationship between their
performance and reward in comparison to others.
 Equity theory works on two assumption-
◦ Individuals make contribution (inputs) for which they expect certain rewards
(outcomes).
◦ Individuals decide whether or not a particular exchange is satisfactory,
by comparing their inputs and outcomes with those of others. And try to
rectify any inequality.

 Various types of inputs and out comes are-
Inputs(Efforts) Outcomes(Rewards)
Efforts Pay
Time Promotion
Education Recognition
Experience Security
Training Personal Development
Ideas Benefits
Ability Friendship Opportunity

 Exchange relationship may be of three types-
◦ Overpaid Inequity
◦ Underpaid Inequity
◦ Equity
 Overpaid Inequity: The person perceives that his
outcomes are more as compared to his inputs in relation to
others.
◦ In this case person experience guilt feeling.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY OF
MOTIVATION

Reinforcement Theory of Motivation
 The Reinforcement Theory believes that-
◦ Reinforcement conditions behavior, and
◦ By reinforcing certain behaviors we can increase the types of behaviors that
impact organizational effectiveness in a positive way.
 This theory is based on the idea that behavior is environmentally
caused.
 Behavior is believed to be based on the consequences and not on
thoughts, feelings, or attitudes.

 Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a behavioral approach rather than a
cognitive one
◦ Behavior is environmentally caused
◦ Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
 Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
◦ Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforces
◦ Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior
◦ Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause
 The Reinforcement Theory is based on the goal-setting theory we looked
at earlier. However, it focuses on behaviors instead of cognitive factors.
 This theory is not technically a motivational theory, rather it is a method
used to analyze behavior. It is important to keep in mind that
reinforcement does impact behavior but it is not the only factor that does
so.

 Underpaid inequity: The person perceives that his outcomes are
more as compared to his inputs in relation to others.
◦ In this case person experience dissonance.
 Equity: The person perceives that his outcomes in relation to his
inputs are equal to those of others.
◦ In this case person experience satisfaction.

VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
(VIE THEORY)

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (VIE Theory)
 Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory is one of the most commonly used and
widely accepted theory of motivation.
 This theory argues that “the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
is dependent on the strength of the expectation that they will receive a
given outcome and that the outcome is desired.
 Employees are willing to work harder if they believe that their actions will
get them an outcome they desire.
◦ For Example: Employees are willing to work long and hard hours if they know that
they will be rewarded through promotion, recognition, or pay in response to their
hard work.

 Expectancy theory is about the mental processes
regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes
that an individual undergoes to make choices.
 "This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to
relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure
that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved
and wanted by the recipients."

 Expectancy theory has three components:
1. Expectancy: Effort → Performance (E→P)
2. Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)
3. Valence:V(R) Outcome → Reward

Expectancy:
Effort → Performance (E→P)
 Expectancy is the belief that “one's effort (E) will result
in attainment of desired performance (P) goals”.
 Expectancy is usually based on an individual's-
◦ Past experience,
◦ Self-confidence (self efficacy), and
◦ The perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal.

Instrumentality:
Performance → Outcome (P→O)
 Instrumentality is the belief that “a person will receive a
reward if the performance expectation is met”.
 This reward may present itself in the form of-
◦ Pay increase,
◦ Promotion,
◦ Recognition or sense of accomplishment.
 Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all
performances given.

Valence:
V(R) Outcome → Reward
 Valence is “the value an individual places on the rewards
of an outcome.”
 Valence is based on-
◦ Individuals needs,
◦ Goals,
◦ Values and
◦ Sources of motivation.

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
(SDT)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
 SDT believes that human nature shows
◦ Inherent Growth Tendencies
◦ Innate Psychological Needs
 Inherent Growth Tendencies” are persistent positive features, that
it repeatedly shows effort, agency and commitment in their lives
that the theory calls “Inherent GrowthTendencies".
 People have “Innate Psychological Needs” that are the basis for
self-motivation and personality integration.

 SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow
optimal function and growth:
◦ Competence
◦ Relatedness
◦ Autonomy

 Competence: It is a need to control the outcome and
experience mastery.
 Relatedness: it is the universal want to interact, be
connected to, and experience caring for others.
 Autonomy: It is the universal urge to be causal agents
of one's own life and act in harmony with one's
integrated self.

 Motivations:
 SDT makes distinctions between different types of motivation and
the consequences of them.
 Intrinsic motivation
 Extrinsic motivation
◦ Externally regulated behaviour
◦ Introjected regulation of behaviour
◦ Regulation through identification
◦ Integrated Regulation

 Intrinsic motivation is the natural, inherent drive to seek out challenges
and new possibilities that SDT associates with cognitive and social
development.
 Extrinsic motivation comes from external sources. OIT theory
describes four different types of extrinsic motivations that often vary in
terms of their relative autonomy:
◦ Externally regulated behavior: it Is the least autonomous, it is performed because of external demand
or possible reward. Such actions can be seen to have an externally perceived locus of causality.
◦ Introjected regulation of behavior: it describes taking on regulations to behavior but not fully
accepting said regulations as your own.
◦ Regulation through identification: Is a more autonomously driven form of extrinsic motivation. It
involves consciously valuing a goal or regulation so that said action is accepted as personally important.
◦ Integrated Regulation: it is the most autonomous kind of extrinsic motivation. Occurring when
regulations are fully assimilated with self so they are included in a person's self evaluations and beliefs on
personal needs. Because of this, integrated motivations share qualities with intrinsic motivation but are still
classified as extrinsic because the goals that are trying to be achieved are for reasons extrinsic to the self,
rather than the inherent enjoyment or interest in the task.

Self-Efficacy Theory of Motivation
 Another theory of motivation is the self-efficacy theory developed
by Albert Bandura.
 This theory is based on an individual belief that “he or she is
capable of performing a task.”
◦ Higher efficacy is related to:
 Greater confidence.
 Greater persistence in the face of difficulties.
 Better response to negative feedback (work harder).
◦ Self-efficacy theory complements Goal-Setting Theory

Motivation by Amitabh Mishra

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