Trigonometry Lab Report

Trigonometry Lab Report
For this experiment, two ionic, NaCl and KI, and two molecular, fructose and sucrose, unknown
compounds were determined based on molecular weight. This was calculated when the freezing
points were depressed in aqueous solutions. The resulting freezing points helped determine the four
unknowns by calculating the various solutions' molecular weights from the average normalized
freezing points. After this, the percent error was calculated by comparing the data from the
experiment to the normalized freezing points. One thing during this experiment that could be
changed is to use a bigger beaker and vial, so it is easier to stir when the ice begins to form at the
bottom of the vial. This also would reduce the amount of the supercooling seen in Part ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First, the normalized freezing points for unknowns 3 and 4 were –2.8 degrees Celsius and –3.0
degrees Celsius, respectively. The van't Hoff factor was one because the solid does not break apart,
and it remains as one particle. The molalities were 1.505 mol/kg for unknown 3 and for unknown 4
it was 1.613 mol/kg. In the second step, the unknown number of moles of each unknown was
determined by using molality. This was calculated by dividing the molality determined in step one
by 20 mL of water solvent. The volume was converted by knowing that 1 L = 1 kg. With this, the
volume was determined by dividing 20 mL by 1000 mL to get .02 L This allowed for both kg units
to cancel out and to only leave moles of solute. The number of moles calculated for unknown 3 was
.0133 moles and for unknown 4 it was .0124 moles. These values were then used to find the
molecular weight by dividing the theoretical mass of 5 g which was given by the number of moles
calculated. The calculated molecular weights for unknowns 3 and 4 were 375.94 g/mole and 403.23
g/mole, respectively. The actual molecular weight for fructose is 180.17 g/mole and for sucrose it is
342.2965 g/mole. With this, unknown 3 was fructose and unknown 4 was sucrose. Therefore, with
this information, the unknown 3 used within the experiment was fructose. As shown in Figure 3, the
temperatures are recorded during the experiment for
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Effects of Salt on Ice
Effects of Salt on Ice
Bill Yongco
Angela Enriquez
Trisha Co
Ying Huang Xu
Abstract
To be done when IP is completed
Acknowledgments
To be done when IP is completed
Table of Contents Background of the Study | Pg.3 | Statement of the Problem | Pg.3 | Significance of
the Study | Pg.3 | Scope and Limitations | Pg.4 | Review of Related Literature | Pg.4–5 |
Methodology | Pg.6 | Results and discussion | Pg.7–8 | Conclusions | Pg.9 | Recommendation | Pg. 9 |
Definition of terms | Pg. 10 | Appendix | Pg.11–14 | Bibliography | Pg. 15 |
A. Background of study
On the countries where snow is abundant or have winter seasons they use salt to melt the snow or
ice on the roads, and other areas. When making ice ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
* The values were estimated since the thermometer didn't show decimal values * The freezer used to
freeze the ice was at –16C
Control ice cube (unsalted) at minute 2
The temperature was –8C
Ice cube w/ 1 tbsp salt at minute 2
The temperature was –12C Control ice cube (unsalted) at minute 4
Refer to picture in the appendix

Refer to picture () in the appendix
The temperature was– 6C
Refer to picture () in the appendix
Refer to picture () in the

Lab 12 Essay
1. What is an ionic bond? Typically an ionic bond occurs between one metal and one non–metal ion.
One atom borrows one or more electrons from another atom. An ionic bond is a type of chemical
bond that occurs when one atom loses an electron to form a positive ion and the other atom gains an
electron to form a negative ion, which then result in attraction. 2. What is a covalent bond? A
covalent bond is a bond that occurs when atoms in a molecule share a pair of electrons. For
example, "the atoms in sugar do not form ions; instead, they are held together because of shared
electrons."
3. Do you think sugar or salt will melt at a higher temperature? Explain your answer. Since sugar is
composed of covalent bonds and salt ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Questions
1. Why is it important to use distilled water instead of tap water used in Part 1? Distilled water is
formed from condensed steam, which therefore makes it free from mineral and organic salts.
Regular water is physically purified and chemically treated to kill germs, but contains many salts in
it. Distilled water is free of salts, but regular tap water contains many salts. Therefore, if we are
trying to see what happens for sugar, it would not be purely sugar if we used tap water because tap
water contains salts. If we used tap water we would be mixing salt and sugar so we would not get
accurate results.
2. In Part 1, why did you not observe a stream of bubbles coming off the stainless steel screw in the
sugar solution? Since sugar is composed of covalent bonds and therefore as we saw in part 2, takes
much less time to melt, I think we didn't observe bubbles because there was not as much as a
reaction since it "melted" so much faster. Also, sugar does not change its composition when added to
water, but salt does. Therefore, perhaps the sugar does not cause the screw to bubble much.
3. Did any bubbles form off the screw in the sugar solution at all? Why might this happen despite
your answer to Question 2? I did see occasional bubbles, which could be due to the slight chemical
reaction of the two chemicals. However, it was obviously not as strong as with the salt since the salt
changed

Why Did The Water Rise On A Candle
How did the water rise upon its own? Was it the candle? The heat? What was it?
Well, my project is based on lighting a candle, placing it in a bowl of water, covering the candle up
with a glass bottle. Then, slowly watch the water rise, but how did it rise? Below is some research,
based on these factors, and this experiment.
First, I will start with the candle and the science behind it. A candle is made up of wax, and all
waxes are essentially hydrocarbons. This means that candles are largely composed of hydrogen (H)
and carbon (C) atoms. The heat of the flame vaporizes the liquid wax (turns it into hot gas) and
starts to break down the hydrocarbons into molecules of hydrogen and carbon.
These vaporized molecules are drawn up into the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Compounds:
When atoms of different types of elements join together, they make molecules called compounds.
Water consists of compound molecules made up on 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. This is
why its called H20. Water will always have 2 times the number of hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms.
There are only just over 100 types of atoms, but there are millions and millions of different
subtances outh there. This is because they are all made up of different types of molecules. Molecules
are not only made up of different types of atoms but also diffeent ratios. Like in the water
exampleabove, a water molecule has 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. This is written as H20.
Molecules and compunds are held together by forces called chemical bonds. There are two main
types of bonds that hold most compunds together: covalent bonds amd ionic bonds. Some
compounds can have both types of bonds.
How do chemical reactions occur?
The reason why I'm researching this is because there might be a reaction to heat and water. In order
for a chemical reaction to take place, the reactants must

Glass Funnel Lab
Fritted glass funnels are commonly used in chemistry labs. They have porous glass at the bottom
that traps solids and allows liquids to pass through.
Filter paper in a glass funnel will catch the solids and allow you to isolate a pure sample, sodium
chromate in this case, that was formed during a chemical reaction.
After the solid is separated from the liquid it is allowed to dry so any liquid stuck to the substance
will just evaporate away and you are left with a pure substance. Distillation is used to separate
compounds based on their boiling points.
Image © Shutterstock, Inc.
Crude oil is a mixture of several different compounds made of mostly hydrogen and carbon.
Distillation is the way all these compounds are separated from each other. Smaller compounds like
methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Oil refinery plants are several distillation columns set up for multiple consecutive distillations. Once
one separation is done the separation is said to be crude, more than one compound with close boiling
points remain in the fraction. Each fraction is sent off for a more precise separation until a pure
compound is isolated. This process is repeated until a single compound is isolated. Separation is a
cornerstone to any chemistry lab and is performed after every chemical reaction. No chemical
reaction is pure at the end and some type of separation is needed. Remember the example of
moonshine at the beginning? Ethanol is the alcohol we drink for several reasons... It is the product
of the fermentation of grains, potatoes, corn, grapes, and so on. Well, one of the other product of this
fermentation process is methanol, an alcohol that is toxic and can cause you to go blind. The alcohol
industry has the technology needed to separate methanol from ethanol but this is a problem in home
brews since most people do not have access to the equipment needed to separate the two alcohols
and home brewers tend to concentrate their alcohol.

Boiling Point Lab
The purpose of this experiment is to identify unknown substances by finding certain properties that
this substance has. Like the density,melting point and the boiling point with these we are able to
identify the unknown liquid and unknown solid that we are given. In order to get the density of a
liquid we are first going to divide the mass of the liquid by the volume of the liquid in order to get
us the density. In order to get the density of a solid we are going to divide the mass of the solid by
the volume of the solid in order to get us the density of the solid. Next we are going to want to find
the boiling point of a liquid we find this by placing a thermometer and test tube into a beaker with
some water in it. Then we boil it and record the data we are going to want to record the start of the
boiling and constant temp of the boiling then use this equation ( Start of boiling + constant temp of
boiling ) / 2. This will give us our boiling temperature +/– 5 degrees. Finally we are going to want to
find the melting point of a solid we do this by placing the tube in the device that determines the
melting point of a solid. Then we ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We then will use the equation mass / volume and get the density. Now for the second section of the
experiment to find the boiling point of a liquid we are going to need a thermometer, beaker , test
tube , heat source we will boil the liquid and get the boiling point of it by using the equation ( t1 +
t2)/2. To get the melting point of a solid we are going to need a mel–temp, bunsen burner ,
thermometer, and a capillary tube. We should not need any equations because once the liquid form
of the solid starts to melt we will record that temperature +/–

Essay on Experiment a: Cis-Trans Conversion of Butenedioic...
EXPERIMENT A: CIS–TRANS CONVERSION OF BUTENEDIOIC ACID
PRE–LAB ASSIGNMENT
1. Maleic acid is the cis version and fumaric acis is the trans version of butenedioic acid.
2.
3. See attached paper.
4. Maleic anhydride is the compound that crystalizes in part A in the experiment.
5. HCl acts as a catalyst to break one of the carbonyl group in the maleic acid which rotates the
structure to form a trans structure of the butonal acid which is the fumaric acid. And it does so by
donating its protons.
6.
Maleic acid
Chronic effects: mutagenic for somatic cells. May cause damage to kidneys and lungs. And may
effect genetic material
Ingestion: Very hazardous, may cause severe gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns and ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2013.
<http://www.chemicalbook.com/ChemicalProductProperty_EN_CB2852803.htm>
"Fumaric Acid." ChemicalBook–––Chemical Search Engine. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2013
<http://www.chemicalbook.com/ChemicalProductProperty_EN_CB5852804.htm>
10.
Procedure for melting point test – Using Melting Point Apparatus:
1) Once the samples, maleic acid and fumaric acid are in crystal form 2) Obtain a thin glass
capillary tube, press the open end of the capillary tube into the substance(around 2–3mm), do one
sample at a time 3) Repeatedly tab the bottom of the capillary tube so the sample moves down. 4)
Place the capillary tube in one of the three metal slots of the thermometer 5) Turn on the MP
apparatus, look through the eye piece until the substance turns into liquid 6) Record the temperature
for each sample. 7) The sample with the highest melting point should be Fumaric acid, and the other
substance should be maleic acid.

Procedure for determining pH – Using Hydrion paper
1. Remove a piece of Hydrion paper from the plastic vial. 2. Using a different stir rod for each
solution, stir the sample and obtain some of the solution on the end of the stir rod. 3. Holding

Disadvantages Of 4 White Powders
From the table four appropriate simple tests can be conducted in order to determine the structure
type and identify the four white powders. This includes conducting tests of melting point, flame
color, solubility and the conductivity in water (H20). The melting point of a substance is the
temperature at which the material changes from a solid to a liquid state. The determination of
melting points is a form of identification and test method for organic substance. The melting point is
an easy way measure and classify substances. Testing the flame color is an appropriate test as metal
ions change the color of a flame when they are heated. Different metal ions give different colors to
the flame. So flame tests can be used to identify the presence of a particular metal in a sample.
Solubility is appropriate as a solvent a substance will dissolve in gives hints to its identity.
Conductivity in water (H20) identifies if a substance is ionic or molecular. If a solution of
compound and water has high conductivity level, the compound is ionic if not it is molecular.
– Flame test
– Melting POINT
– Solubility
– Conductivity in water
Materials:
– 8 test tubes
–Test Tube Rack
–Spatula
–Electrical conductor kit
– Four unknown substances (C,F, E, D)
– Peg
– Distilled water
Procedure: Flame color
1.

Organic Compounds Identity Lab Report
Kenneth Hobbs
The objective of the lab was to reveal some physical characteristics of two organic compounds to
determine their identity. The methods performed in this lab were melting point (mp), thin layer
chromatography, solubility in a sodium bicarbonate solution, and mixed mp with organic solids. The
unknown #5 exhibited an approximate mp range of 162–167 °C, precise mp range of 162–164 °C,
Rf value of 0.558, and insoluble in sodium bicarbonate. The first comparison of Rf values showed
unknown #5 had a considerably higher value compared to the other unknowns. Xing's unknown Rf
value of 0.506 gave an immediate indication towards a match, both compounds had a similar white–
chalk physical appearance, and his mp range of 161–163 °C confirmed the two unknowns were most
likely to be the same. The mixed mp with Xing's unknown was 162–163.5 °C. The mixed mp
concludes the two unknowns are the same because the temperature range did not become broader
and lower as if two different compounds would. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The mixed mp with benzanilide was 161.5–163 °C, which means unknown #5 is most likely
benzanilide. The mixed mp with salicylic acid was 134–137.5, which is much lower than both of the
compounds' individual mp. Since the temperature was lower, the crystalline structures of the impure
mixture changed. Because the mp range did not broaden as much with the temperature drop, the
mixed sample may have been near the eutectic point. The mixture mp for the benzoic acid and sand
mixture was 126.1 °C. The organic benzoic acid melted into a liquid; however, the sand did not melt
into a liquid because it is insoluble in the organic liquid. With this being said, the sand had no effect
on the crystalline structure and mp for benzoic

Casting Defects And Their Influence On Property
MTN – 391 Technical Communication Report
Casting Defects and their influence on property
Shivam Gupta and Somesh Mohapatra
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee
Abstract
Casting is one of the major metallurgical operations carried out in the manufacturing industry. Given
the large scale of operations, the number of defects in the process also goes up with the development
of the time and methods of the processing. Although, we have managed to cover up for the defects
in the procedure, yet the remnants pose a huge problem. Now, every property attributes its relations
to the casting process and the correlation of the defect in the microstructure, ductility, machinability,
etc. all trace their reasons back to the type of casting or the defect associated with it. In the present
study, we have tried to analyze two main types of defects mainly, filling and thermal defects, with
their sub–types along with the causes, effects on the properties and remedies.
Keywords: Casting Defects; Filling Defects; Thermal Defects.
1. Introduction
Casting is a process of manufacturing where the liquid material is poured into a mould and let to
solidify over a period of time [1–5]. This process has major implications in the manufacturing
industry and several operations are heavily dependent on this. It is of utmost importance that the
process of casting is understood in depth and the processing is carried out with

Physical Properties and Reactions of Period 3 Oxides
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PERIOD 3 OXIDES
These pages explain the relationship between the physical properties of the oxides of Period 3
elements (sodium to chlorine) and their structures. Argon is obviously omitted because it doesn't
form an oxide.
A quick summary of the trends
The oxides
The oxides we'll be looking at are:
|Na2O |MgO |Al2O3 |SiO2 |P4O10 |SO3 |Cl2O7 |
| | | | |P4O6 |SO2 |Cl2O |
Those oxides in the top row are known as the highest oxides of the various elements. These are the
oxides where the Period 3 elements are in their highest oxidation states. In these oxides, all the outer
electrons in the Period 3 element are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What you can safely say is that because the metallic oxides and silicon dioxide have giant structures,
the melting and boiling points are all high.
Electrical conductivity
Silicon dioxide doesn't have any mobile electrons or ions – so it doesn't conduct electricity either as
a solid or a liquid.
The molecular oxides
Phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine all form oxides which consist of molecules. Some of these
molecules are fairly simple – others are polymeric. We are just going to look at some of the simple
ones.
Melting and boiling points of these oxides will be much lower than those of the metal oxides or
silicon dioxide. The intermolecular forces holding one molecule to its neighbors' will be van der
Waals dispersion forces or dipole–dipole interactions. The strength of these will vary depending on
the size of the molecules.
None of these oxides conducts electricity either as solids or as liquids. None of them contains ions
or free electrons.
The phosphorus oxides
Phosphorus has two common oxides, phosphorus (III) oxide, P4O6, and phosphorus (V) oxide,
P4O10.
Phosphorus (III) oxide (tetraphosphorus hexoxide)
Phosphorus (III) oxide is a white solid, melting at 24°C and boiling at 173°C.
The phosphorus is using only three of its outer electrons (the 3 unpaired p electrons) to form bonds
with the oxygens.

Phosphorus (V) oxide (tetraphosphorus decoxide)
Phosphorus (V) oxide is also a white solid, subliming (turning straight

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Malo Refractory Bricks
1. Introduction:
MgO–CaO or Mag–Dol refractory bricks have been considered as one type of chrome–free
refractory bricks that are suitable for substituting the MgO–Cr2O3 refractories [1]. Typically, MgO–
CaO refractory bricks composed of 50–80 wt. % of magnesia(MgO) [2]. There are two ways for
produce MgO–CaO refractory bricks. The first way is using fused and sintered Co–clinker of
magnesite(MgCO3) and dolomite(Mg.Ca(CO3)2) as a starting material for produce the MgO–CaO
refractory bricks which would lead to more homogenous products with more desirable properties.
Another way is mixing magnesite and dolomite together and calcination them at high temperature
that let to produce an in–situ MgO–CaO refractory bricks ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Hydration resistance Fig. shows the effect Fe2O3, Al2O3 and Cr2O3 nanoparticles addition on the
hydration resistance of MgO–CaO specimens. Materials based on MgO and CaO can undergo
hydration in humid atmosphere. In this case the powder grains break, the material is pulverized, and
articles crack [3–9]. Several methods such as using pitch, tar, flake, and vein graphite minerals,
treating MgO–CaO materials in a CO2atmosphere or addition of different oxide additives, such as
V2O5 [11], CuO [12], FeTiO3 [13], La2O3 [14], TiO2[], Ce2O [15], ZrO2 [16], and Fe2O3, have
been tested to control the hydration resitance of MgO–CaO refractories. all methods lead the
accession of CaO and MgO to the moisture to decrease From Fig. it is observed that the mass gain
of MgO–CaO specimens decreased with addition of Fe2O3, Al2O3 and Cr2O3 nanoparticles. For
sample without addition, the mass gain after 96 hours was %, which was decreased with increasing
the amount of nanoparticle additives. Increasing the amount of additives reduces the weight gain
due to more grain growth and lower grain boundary and porosity for the samples contain nano
Fe2O3 and Al2O3, and covered free CaO and MgO phases. The degree of hydration is related to the
absorption of water on the crystal defect and grain boundary surface. It is known that the hydration
resistance of CaO

Categorization Of Intriguing Compounds Lab Report
The Categorization of Intriguing Substances An ionic compound is the electrostatic attraction
between protons and electrons that are transferred between two atoms. Ionic bonds occur with a
metal and a nonmetal atom. Metals lose electrons to create cations, while nonmetals gain electrons
to make anions. Covalent compounds occur only in nonmetals, which is characterized by the sharing
of pairs of electrons between atoms and other covalent bonds. Additionally, the melting and boiling
point of ionic bonds are high, whereas covalent bonds are low. Since electrons and ions are shared in
covalent compounds, it lacks moving electrons or ions. Therefore, electricity cannot be conducted;
on the other hand, ionic compounds move freely and will have ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
On the other hand, covalent compounds may take the form of either solid, liquid, or gas; moreover,
they are loose and molecular. Once the ions are dissolved, the presence of charged particles
distributed throughout the liquid allows the solution to conduct electricity. Therefore, ionic
compounds have higher melting and boiling points compared to covalent compounds. Similarly,
ionic compounds dissolved in water make an electrically conductive solution, which are able to
move freely through the solution carrying the charge and conducts an electric current.
Correspondingly, covalent compounds do not exhibit any electrical conductivity in either pure form
or when it is dissolved in water. Thus, ionic compounds dissolve in water and have higher melting
and boiling

Ionic And Covalent Compounds Essay
Chris Naoum
Mr. Jeff Handley
Science A
1/27/2016
Ionic and Covalent Compounds
Introduction:
Methods:
–Water solubility
–melting point
– conductivity of electricity
properties of covalent bonds:
– Liquid or gaseous (its state at room temperature)
– It is formed when two non–metals have similar electro negativities
– Its melting point is low
Properties of ionic bonds:
– Solid (its state at room temperature)
– It is formed between a metal and a non–metal
– Its melting point is high
Two methods chosen: Method 1: Water solubility can be used to figure out if a compound is ionic or
covalent because once the compound is put into the Distilled H2O it would dissolve since its ionic
but if the powder is insoluble then its covalent meaning ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If the powder dissolves then to make sure it is ionic or a type of covalent pour the 150 ml of ethanol
into a beaker and pour 1.5 grams of the same powder into the chemical, if the powder dissolves it is
covalent but if it doesn't dissolve its ionic.
8. Record all observations on the reaction of the water and ethanol
9. Repeat steps 1–8 for other 5 powders
Melting Point procedure:

1. Take the aluminum dish and separate the middle using a pencil
2. Put 3 grams of two different powders in the separate panels
3. Put the retort stand over the Bunsen burner
4. Turn the Bunsen burner on and set a specific temperature(start low) place the aluminum dish on
the retort stand above the Bunsen burner
5. If the powder does not burn then raise the temperature to a very high temp.
6. If the powder melts at a high temperature (800 plus) then its ionic but if it melts at a low temp its
covalent
7. Make sure to use the infrared thermometer to check what temperature the powder started melting
at and record the reaction and what temperature the powder melted at
8. Repeat steps 1–7 for the other powders
Works cited:
BBC News. BBC, Web. 26 Jan. 2016.

Project Water Level Indicator With Automatic Water Pump...
Water is the most important issue in our day to day life. But it is very pathetic when the owner of the
house faced that the water tank be empty without any alarming. The project is to design water level
indicator with automatic water pump controlling system. water level sensor is been made for sensing
water level accurately. Microcontroller is used to control the overall system automatically that
reduces the design and control complexity. Microcontroller takes input from the sensor unit which
senses the water level. After processing input variables, resultant output decides the water pump's
action (on/off) with respect to current water status of the tank. A display unit indicates the status of
pump and water level. The device also monitor the state of level of water whether it is stable,
increasing or decreasing with what velocity. It also stores the total time of pump being kept ON. It
also keep monitoring whether the pumping is working well or not. While Keeping the motor ON it
detects whether the motor pump is working well or not every minutes. If the level is increasing or
decreasing in each minutes then the indicator shows the motor pump is working well else after three
minutes if the level remains stable then it shows there is a problem in motor. Thus it also monitor the
working performance of the pump Introduction
An Water Level Indicator may be defined as a system by which we can get the information of any
water reservoir. Water level indicator system are quite

Chemistry Bonding Assignment
Chemistry 30
Chemical Bonding – Properties of Molecules
1. For the following molecules determine which atoms are bonded (write the symbols with a bond
between them), the electronegativity difference between them, and the type of chemical bond it
represents. If the bond is ionic, state what ions are produced. If the bond is polar covalent, indicate
the direction of the dipole on the symbols from the first part.
a) KCl Electronegativity difference = K – Cl = 0.8 – 3.0 = 2.2 ionic bond K1+ Cl1– b) LiBr
Electronegativity difference = Li – Br = 1.0 – 2.8 = 1.8 ionic bond Li1+ Br1– [pic] c) HI
Electronegativity difference = H – I = 2.1 – 2.5 = 0.4 polar covalent bond ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Both have London dispersion force drawing them together.
These two are isoelectronic so the London force should be the same. This is manifested in similar
boiling temperatures.
5. Why does liquid propane (C3H8) boil at a much lower temperature than gasoline (C8H18)?
Both are pure hydrocarbons and are non–polar (symmetry causes dipoles to cancel). Both have
london dispersion force. Propane has 26 electrons, gasoline has 66. Since gasoline has more
electrons, it has a higher london dispersion force and so has a higher boiling temperature than
propane.
6. Given the following molecules:
i) methane iii) butane ii) propane iv) methyl propane
a) Draw each structure
[pic] [pic] [pic] [pic]
b) Predict the order of increasing melting point. Give reasons for your answer.
methane, propane, butane, methyl propane.

fewest electrons, lowest melting point. methyl propane is more compact than butane so it packs
better in the solid phase and has the highest melting point.
c) Predict the order of increasing boiling point. Give reasons for your answer.
methane, propane, methyl propane, butane
fewest electrons, lowest boiling point. butane has more surface area in the liquid phase so more
interactions with surrounding molecules give it a higher boiling point.
7. Both krypton (b.p. –152°C) and

Investigation in to the factors that affects the rate of...
Investigation in to the factors that affects the rate of fermentation of Glucose
Aim:
To investigate the factors that affects the rate of fermentation of
Glucose.
Background knowledge.
ENZYMES
Fermentation is a form of an anaerobic respiration where by glucose is partially broken down so
only a small amount of energy is released.
The yeast cells use the enzymes, ZYMASE to break down sugars unable to obtain. GLUCOSE
CARBON DIOXIDE + ETHANOL(+ENERGY) C6 H12 O6 6CO2 + C2H5OH (210KJ)
Enzymes have several properties.
1) Specific actions–Zyamse in yeast works on glucose.
2) A small amount is required as the enzyme is used again and again as it is uncharged at the end
therefore one of my variables could be varying the quantity ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Due to high temperature the energy increases of the collisions, because it makes all particles move
faster.
INCREASING THE TEMPERATURE ONLY CAUSES FASTER COLLISIONS.
KINETIC THEORY
'The behavior of molecules of solids, liquids and gases depending on their state of pressure and
temperature since kinetic theory is the nergy of movement,'
The 3 states, solids, liquids and gases have a different type of kinetic energy.

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES.
1) gases consist of a very large number of extremely small particles (molecules) which are in state of
continuous rapid motions.
2) The molecules move in straight lines until they collide with one another or with the wall of the
container.
3) The collisions are perfectly elastc ie. There is no change in the total energy as a result of a
collision.
4) The distances between the molecules are largecompared to their size. The supposition is indicated
by the great compressibility of gases.
5) The molecules are so far apart the the attractive forces between them are neligible.
KINETIC THEORY OF LIQUIDS.
The main difference between liquids and gases is that the molecules in a liquid are much closer
together. Therfore the molecules in a liquid are less free to move about independently. The velocities
of the molecules will be continually changing as a result of the collisions.
Many molecules will have the average welocities, whilst some will have either a greater or slower
velocities. Some fast molecules

Atom And The Atoms Of Atoms
An atom is contained of a nucleus holding positively charged protons and neutrally charged
neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus of an atom are negatively charged electrons. In a neutral atom,
the number of electrons and protons are the same. However, the solidity of an atom, is the tendency
for the atom to gain or lose electrons, is directly proportional to the number of electrons located on
the valence of the atom, the outermost part of the shell. The stability of the electrons determines the
physical properties of a particular compound and can be used to determine if the bone is either an
ionic or covalent bond.
Introduction
The stability of an atom is determined by the number of electrons located on the valence (or outer
shell) of the atom. Electrons are located looping the nucleus in shells. The number and size of each
shell are determined by the number of electrons in an atom. The smaller shells are filled up first,
followed by the next shell. The number of electrons allowed in each shell are as followed: two
electrons in the first shell, eight electrons in the second shell, and 18 electrons in the third shell.
Some elements are more reactive than others varying on the number of electrons positioned on the
valence shell of the atoms involved. Atoms will attempt to create a full valence shell by either losing
excess electrons or by gaining the necessary electrons required to fill the atoms valence shell. This is
how ions are created.
An ion is an atom

Factors Of Organic Pollution Through The Palmer Index...
Introduction Certain algal genera can be used to determine organic pollution through the Palmer
index scoring method. There are specific genera that when found in a sample of water could indicate
a potential problem with pollution. The genera on the list of indicator organisms are chosen for their
affinity for hypereutrophic and even anoxic environments such as polluted waters (Blanco et al,
2008). There are 20 pollution tolerant genera that were assigned a number between one and five, and
based on their presence of greater than 50 cells per milliliter contributes to the pollution score
(Mahnken & Wilhm, 1982). A Palmer index of less than 15 indicates little to no pollution, 15 – 19
indicates a probability of high organic pollution, and 20 or greater indicates evidence of high
organic pollution (Mahnken & Wilhm, 1982). I want to see if the Galveston Ship Channel has more
pollution than the mystery sample. My objective is to determine which site has more pollution using
algal genus pollution index, Palmer index.
Materials and Methods I collected water from the Galveston Ship Channel as seen in figure 1. The
water parameters salinity: 18 ppm, temperature: 13.3°C, dissolved oxygen: 12.5, and turbidity:
0.5m. I did a 25m transect in this location to collect water to bring back to the lab. Figure 1. Water
collection site at Texas A&M University at Galveston in the Galveston Ship Channel courtesy of
Google earth.
The other water sample was from 29.778016N,

Ionic and Covalent Bonding Essay
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Ionic and covalent bonding is involved when the atoms of an element chemically combine to make
their outer shells full and to make the atoms stable.
The first type of bonding you can get is ionic bonding. Electrons are transferred from one atom to
another to try and create full outer shells, this gain and loss of electrons on the atoms results in
positive and negative ions. In these compounds you get electrostatic force, this is the force/attraction
that occurs between the positive and negative ions that hold the compound together. This type of
bonding takes place between metals and non–metals. The metals lose electrons and form cations,
whereas the non–metals gain ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the size of the negative ion and the charge on the positive ion both increase and the size of the
positive ions decrease, the polarisation effect increases. This polar ionic bonding gives many of the
atoms covalent characters. Sometimes one of the atoms become so highly polarised that they share
the electrons and therefore can create covalent bonds.
Covalent bonding takes place where two atoms have a single, unpaired electron in an atomic orbital;
these orbitals will therefore overlap so that the two atoms are sharing a pair of electrons. The
attraction that holds the atoms together is the force between the electron and the nuclei in each of the
atoms. Before the atoms are bonded, the single, non–bonded pairs of electrons are called lone pairs
of electrons. When the atoms combine by means of covalent bonding they form molecules.
Simple covalent compounds consist of many small molecules. The covalent bonds within the
molecules are strong but the bondings between them to form the compounds are relatively weak, the
force that occurs between them is called the intermolecular force. It takes very little energy to break
these forces; therefore simple covalent compounds have very low melting points and generally
appear as gases.
You can also get multiple bonds; this is where atoms can share more than 2

The Change Of Wor Vs. Dimensionless Time
As Yortsos et al. (1999) have shown in their work, the change of WOR vs. dimensionless time is
governed by the time regime. He distinguished four such time regimes: Early time, before water
breaks through the layers of a reservoir (Fig. 1, b) in which WOR remains almost constant; The
stage immediately following water breakthrough, when water saturation near the producer is low
(Fig. 1, c). This regime can be analysed using the 1D displacement equation for intermediate values
of water saturation (Eq. 8) which suggests that at intermediate values of water saturation at the
producer,S_w^*≤0.5, the WOR–time relationship is described with a linear function of logW vs.
logt with slope 1. Intermediate time between (ii) and (iv), reflecting ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
14)
Figure 1: Four representative stages of a linear waterflood at interstitial water saturation. Injection of
water causes oil to be displaced from the reservoir resulting in a water saturation gradient
(Willhite,1986)
Figure 2: Areal X–ray shadowgraphs of flood progress in scaled five–spot patterns showing areal
sweep efficiencies of two model floods for two mobility ratios (Willhite,1986)
Fig. 3 shows how WOR varies over time for one of the numerical wells created in a numerical
simulation model for the Wytch Farm Field, UK.
Figure 3: Illustration of a typical WOR vs. dimensionless time dependence showing the four distinct
time regimes Figure 4: A plot of log[(1+W)2/(Wt)] vs. log W showing that in the case of large M,
the cross–plot conditions described by Eq. 8 apply over a wide range of WOR (b=2.0) (Yortsos et
al., 1999)
Using diagnostic plots of log[(1+W)2/(Wt)] vs. logW Yortsos et al. (1999) showed numerically that
for large water oil viscosity ratio and small Corey exponent to oil, the flood front water saturation is
relatively low. As a result the behavior immediately following breakthrough described by Eq. 8 is
valid over a wide range of WOR, in which case the ratio [(1+W)2/(Wt)] remains approximately
constant for an extensive range of WOR. Conversely, for small viscosity ratios, the late time
behavior becomes dominant at much lower values of WOR. His studies were supported by
numerical

Chemistry Solubility
Jacinta Houng
Comparing the Solubility of Chemicals in Water
"Water is known as the "universal solvent" because so many different substances dissolve in it and
we rely on this for many of our daily needs."
Introduction: Water is known as the 'universal solvent' as it is capable of dissolving a variety of
different substances and dissolves more substances than any other liquid. However the ability to be
soluble depends on a substances polarity and bonding. This then contributes to the various ways that
different types of chemicals interact in water.
Solubility is crucial to every living thing on earth as water can carry along valuable chemicals,
minerals, and nutrients necessary for survival. In fact Water covers 70% of the Earths ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
However despite its name as the "universal solvent" there are many compounds that won't dissolve
or won't dissolve well in water. If the attraction is high between the opposite–charged ions in a
compound, then the solubility will be low. For example, most hydroxides exhibit low solubility in
water.
Polar molecule: H2O
Polar molecule: H2O
Aim: To investigate and compare the solubility of household chemicals in water to demonstrate the
various ways that the different types of chemicals interact in water.
Hypothesis: Substances with stronger bonds such as ionic bonds will have a low solubility whereas
substances with weaker bonds like covalent bonds will be highly soluble. Therefore sugar will have
the highest solubility followed by citric acid and then salt.
Materials: * Citric Acid * Salt * White Sugar * 600ml of water * 1 Thermometer * 1 Stirrer * 1
tablespoon * 3 transparent cups * 1 Measuring jug * Pen * Paper
Risk Assessment: A common laboratory risk is the handling of glass items. Items such as
thermometers and glass cups carry the risk of breakage, cuts and mercury poisoning. Ways to
minimize and handle this risk include: * Inspect glassware for defects or cracks before use. * Do not
handle broken glass with bare hands. Use appropriate cut–resistant gloves to handle broken glass. *
Use forceps, tongs, scoops, or other mechanical devices for removing

Fossil Fuel Resources For Alternative Sources Of Energy Essay
Diminishing fossil fuel resources have prompted scientists and researchers to look for alternative
sources of energy. Though several alternative sources of energy have been identified, generation of
energy using combustion of fuels still remains the dominant source of energy globally [1].
In search for alternative fuels, biofuels have shown promising results to generate useful energy.
However, efficient atomization of some high viscosity biofuels to yield maximum useful energy and
minimise emissions is an area of research that has not been completely explored so far. As a result,
liquid atomization has drawn a lot of attention among researchers over the past few years [2].
Though several different types of atomization processes are used in the industry, twin fluid
atomization practices have been quite common and effective. Twin fluid atomization techniques can
be broadly classified into Air Blast (AB) atomization, Effervescent Atomization (EA), and Flow
Blurring (FB) atomization.
Amongst these, FB atomization technique is a very recently developed concept that has
demonstrated promising experimental results with high atomization efficiency. Researchers have
conducted experiments to understand the process of atomization in a FB injector as well as the spray
characteristics [2].
However, a computational model has not been developed so far to complement the outcomes from
practical experiments. This project was aimed at gaining further in–depth understanding of a FB
injector

Contamination Caused by Pesticides in Our Environment
The environmental contamination is a most important universal problem in present scenario.
Diverse use of pesticides in agricultural usage causes to numerous environmental problems. These
pesticide residues in drinking water lead to increasing concern in health prospect. Vast usage of
some pesticides contributes to contamination of water bodies mostly, surface and ground water
sources. Misuse, accidental spillage, and improper disposal have resulted in extensive groundwater
pollution (Edgehill et al., 1982). Chlorophenols such as penta–chlorophenol (PCP) and
tetrachloropenol (TeCP) and their salts, are broad spectrum biocides that have been used in
agriculture, industry and public health since the 1920s, and are designated as priority pollutants in
the list of hazardous wastes [Zheng, et al., 2004]. Several toxic chemical, agrochemical and
pharmaceutical industries are discharging poisonous effluents without appropriate treatment. These
hazardous wastes are potential threat to human and animal life. Trace amounts of organochlorine
pesticides present in water and wastewater are the almost difficult to separate from water. Therefore
there is a demand for the efficient removal of organic effluents from aqueous phase. Chemical used
to kill pests mostly those of organochlorine pesticides were critically prohibited in several countries
due to their toxicity and stability in the environment, PCP comes under this group. PCP is found in
two forms as a sodium salt of PCP (C6HCl5O)

The Effect Of Heat Transfer Fluids Essay
1.3 Heat transfer fluids
Based fluid will meet your system's thermal requirements, you can choose between Heat transfer
fluids are those fluids which allow the heat to transfer through itself. This work surveys the veriety
of heat transfer fluids and the systems in which they are used .The fluids considered are those found
in process and energy application: water(vapour and liquid), gases, organic fluids, moltan salt,and
liquid metal. Refrigrents are not included. For completeness,the basic concept of heat transfer and
thermodynamics that apply are also presented along with pertinent relationship, table aur data and a
few illustration examples. these can be used in various forms gasous or liquid , mixture or simple
solution.Heat transfer fluid selection can involve complication, multi–dimensional decisions where
factors such as thermal stability, pumpability, pressure requirements, and more must be weighed in
an effort to achieve the optimum balance of performance and economy in your particular system.
However, you may be able to narrow your range of options with a few basic decisions. First, choose
a synthetic organic fluid, a silicone fluid or an inhibited glycol–based fluid based on your
temperature requirements. If your heat transfer application has a maximum use temperature
requirement above 175˚C (350˚F), consider a synthetic organic or silicone fluid. For temperatures
lower than 175˚C (350˚F), or if you need freeze protection for a water– based system,

Sodium Chloride Lab
Sodium Chloride is added to the ice to lower the melting point of the ice, which is called ionic
dissociation. The sodium chloride is added to the ice in the larger bag in order to keep the dissolving
ice from becoming room temperature. Sodium chloride keeps the ice/ slush at a low temperature that
allows the ice/slush to start chilling the cream and milk which is located in the smaller bag. The
freezing point drops to about –10 degrees Celsius. This allowed the ice/ slush to remain cold at a
low temperature. The sodium chloride prevents hydrogen bonds and keeps the water molecules
solid. This is called freezing point depression. This is one of the colligative properties of science.
Without the temperature dropping, the ice/ slush would not remain cold and crystals would not be
able to form in the smaller bag. The crystals create the ice cream's texture. The solution with the
sodium chloride interferes with the production of crystals. The heat ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Then, when about 8 minutes passed, the ice became mostly slush and water. I felt that it was still at a
cold temperature. I noticed how larger crystals were forming in the bag with the milk and cream. It
had a thick texture. The sodium chloride kept the ice/ slush cold in order to freeze the milk and
cream in the bag. I noticed how cold the bag became when more salt was added. The salt, when put
in the bag, sped up the speed of the reaction occurring. I felt the bag become increasingly colder and
even when we put a towel on the bag, this did not affect the reaction. The heat the towel gave off
was not enough to slow down the reaction occurring. The ice cream froze evenly for the most part.
When my group took the small bag out that contained the milk and cream, I could see the very large
crystals that formed during the reaction. Since they were large crystals, the ice cream did not melt
quickly when I was enjoying

Intermolecular Forces Essay
Intermolecular forces are the attractive and/or repulsive forces among independent particles, such as
molecules, atoms, or ions, within a sample of matter. These forces differ from chemical bonds, or
intramolecular forces, because chemical bonds exist between the atoms of a single molecule. For
example, intermolecular forces could be described as the forces that attract many water molecules
together, while chemical bonds refer to the bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms of a
single water molecule. Chemical bonds are also generally more permanent and stronger than
intermolecular forces.
There are various types of intermolecular forces, all which differ in strength. These forces include:
ion–ion forces, dipole–dipole forces, ion–dipole forces, ion–induced dipole, dipole–induced dipole,
and London dispersion forces. The amount of charge, how it is distributed, and how long a charge
distribution will last, all factor into how strong the intermolecular forces are. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
These forces attract ions rather strongly. In a pure ionic compound, we call these forces ionic bonds
and consider it to be an intramolecular force. In a mixture of substances, however, it is seen as an
intermolecular force since the ions are interacting without being bonded. Ion–ion forces are
repulsive if they are cation–cation or anion–anion, and are attractive if they are cation–anion.
Charge and size influence the strength of these forces. Small molecules with large charge
magnitudes would have stronger ion–ion forces acting between them because these factors would
allow for closer approach to their

What is a Volatile Organic Compound?
Research Questions
What are VOCs? Describe their uses and hazards. Include the properties that make these compounds
hazardous. Include an image of one such compond. VOC's stand for "Volatile Organic Compounds"
and are carbon–based chemicals. These compounds include hydrocarbons, partially oxidized
hydrocarbons, and organic compounds. They are emitted as gases from specifc solids and liquids.
VOC's are used in a number of household and industry products, for examplle; fuels
(propane/gasoline), paint thinners, pesticides, cleaning supplies, correction fluids, permanent
markers, etc. We are exposed to VOC emissions in our every day life and this can be very harmful to
the environment and our health. One main property of VOC's is that they have low boiling and
melting points. VOC's evaporate rapidly at room temperature allowing the molecule to break apart
very easily. This property makes the compound very hazardous. The gases these compounds emit
gets released into the air we breathe and contribute to many health effects depending on the quantity
present in the atmosphere. Some health effects include; eye, nose, and throat infections, headaches,
nausea, and damages to the liver and kidney. Some VOC emissions also act as a greenhouse gas and
contributes to global warming.
ImageImage
Example of a VOC; Propane
What types of intermolecular forces are present in the compound you selected in question #1?
Explain how these forces account for the compound's properties. In

The Oil And Gas Industry
When thinking about how all this oil and gas gets from the platforms in the gulf to land to be
produced, you will run across the phrase, "flow assurance." Flow assurance is what makes sure these
oils and gases get from point A to point B without any hesitations or problems. Its main purpose is to
prevent hydrates, clogged pipes, and wax depositions. So can the oilfield industry survive without
flow assurance, especially in deep water operations? By reading this, you will learn how important
flow assurance is in this industry, and what serious problems can happen because of the failure of
flow assurance.
Body1
Flow assurance is the technology and ability to transport hydrocarbon fluids from reservoirs to
export points over the life of a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Flow assurance is the most critical task during deep water production because of the high pressures
and low temperature involved. Now that we have ventured off further into deep water drilling, no
longer does pipe flow analysis mean, "pressure versus flow rate." When conditions are "wrong,"
hydrates, waxes, or asphaltenes form and come out of the well stream fluids, plugging up flowlines
and processing equipment. So, what are hydrates? Hydrates are crystalline, ice–like solids that form
when small gas molecules, such as methane, ethane, and propane, are trapped in hydrogen–bonded
water cages under high pressure and low temperature conditions. Hydrate nuclei form from the films
of water on the tubular walls. The crystallization of hydrates can result in formation of hydrate plugs
which can end up being hundreds of meters long. The formation of these hydrates can vary from
instantly to a few hours. If there is free water present, hydrates can form in the pipes. Natural gas
hydrates are crystals formed by water with small gas molecules and associated liquids in a ratio of
85 mol% water and 15 mol% hydrocarbons. Gas hydrates have been called "the burning ice." This is
due to the fact that gas hydrates are "host" water cages containing "guest" gas molecules. These
combustible gas molecules can be

Essay on Ionic and Covalent Bonds Lab
Lab Report
Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Lab: Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Introduction:
The purpose of this experiment was to explore the properties of chemical substances that can be
used to identify the types of bonds in a chemical substance using a laboratory procedure. The two
types of bonds being identified were ionic and covalent. Based on a substance's properties, how can
you determine whether its bonds are ionic or covalent? This is the question I posed before starting
the experiment. An ionic bond is a bond that results from the attraction between oppositely charges
ions; one atom "gives" another atom an electron. Combinations of metals and nonmetals typically
form ionic bonds. A covalent bond is a bond that results from ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
There were no controlled variables used in this experiment.
Materials and Procedure:
Materials
five 25 mL beakers – 5 mL of oil stirring rod – 2 g cornstarch
10 mL graduated cylinder – 2 g sodium chloride spoon – 2 g sodium bicarbonate conductivity
apparatus distilled water in a wash bottle
Lab Procedure
Step 1: Gather materials.
***Repeat steps 2–4 for each of the following: 5 mL of oil and 2 g each of cornstarch, sodium
chloride, and sodium bicarbonate.
Step 2: Note State and Appearance.
a) Put the substance in a 25 mL beaker.
b) Observe and record data in the data table on its state of matter, appearance, and texture and
whether it has a crystalline structure.
Step 3: Determine Solubility in Water.
a) Add distilled water to the beaker until the volume totals 15 mL.
b) Use the stirring rod to stir for 3 minutes.
c) Record the amount of substance that dissolved – all, some, a little, or none.

Step 4: Determine Conductivity.
a) Prepare the conductivity apparatus. The electricity should be turned off.
b) Spray a small amount of distilled water on the electrical leads of the conductivity apparatus.
Insert the electrical leads of the conductivity apparatus into the beaker.
c) Turn on the electricity. Record whether you observe conductivity.
d) Turn off electricity. Clean the electrical leads with soap and

Methods Of A Solvent System For Extraction
Introduction Extraction is a technique that is commonly used to separate mixtures, despite whether
the components are solids or liquids. One of the most well–known examples of extraction is the
brewing of tea or the making of coffee. Every pot of coffee or cup of tea involves solid–liquid
extraction. The soluble flavor and caffeine are extracted from the solid tea leaves or ground coffee
beans into hot water (the solvent). Insoluble plant material is left behind in the tea bag or coffee
filter. During extraction, the mixture is brought together with a solvent in which the substance of
interest is soluble, but the other substances present in the mixture are insoluble. Typical lab
extractions are of organic compounds out of an aqueous ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In solid–liquid extractions, a solvent is added to a solid. The insoluble material can then be
separated by either gravity or vacuum filtration. This allows the soluble material to be 'extracted '
into the solvent. The filtered solution can then be used as a solution, or the solvent can be
evaporated to recover the solute in powder or crystalline form In liquid–liquid extractions,
extraction methods differ depending on the density of the solvent that is used. The other method of
extraction that is not used in this experiment is the acid–base extraction. Acid–base extractions are
those in which the water layer is made either acidic or basic in order to convert one component of
the mixture to an ionic compound. This makes it water soluble so that it may be separated from
other hydrophobic organic compounds. Most organics are soluble in polar organic solvents, but only
very small organics or very polar neutral organic compounds are soluble in water. An acid–base
extraction operates on the same principle as solid–liquid and liquid–liquid extractions, but can
provide a further level of fine–tuning. If one or more of the compounds in the mixture to be
separated is acidic or basic, the solubilities of these acidic and basic components can be manipulated
by applying simple acid–base reactions. The solubilities of acidic and basic compounds can then be
changed.
Experimental
A. Solid–Liquid Extraction Firstly, 0.2 g of the mixture

Separation Of Ionic Molecules Lab Report
In chemistry, an ionic compound is a type of chemical bond where the ions are fixed together via an
ionic bond. An ionic bond is formed when a metal reacts with non–metal; in the reaction, electrons
are transferred from the metal atoms to the non–metal atoms forming negatively and positively
charged ions. The electrostatic attraction, one of the strongest force in the universe which is caused
by electric charges between the positive and negative ions, holds the ionic compounds tightly
together. Consider the reaction between the metal calcium oxide (〖Ca〗^(2+)) and the non–metal
water (H_2 O), which react together to yield the ionic compound calcium hydroxide (Ca(〖OH)〗
_2).
In this reaction, calcium oxide donated its electron which was a negatively ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Meaning, compounds with the same type of bonding tend to be soluble with one another. Polar
substances would dissolve in polar solvents such as water, however, would not dissolve in non–polar
solvents. Non–polar substances dissolve in non–polar solvents but do not dissolve in polar ones.
Most ionic compounds are able to be dissolved in water as the water molecules hydrate ions. For an
ionic compound to be dissolved, the water molecules must stabilize the ions, which thus would
result in the separation of the ionic bond to form a solution. Water is a polar molecule, it has a
permanent dipole. The oxygen atom has a partial negative charge whilst the hydrogen atom has a
partial positive charge. When an ionic substance is placed in to the water, the water molecules would
quickly attract the charged ions from the substance. They then become free to move about.
However, this only occurs when the attractive forces between the water molecules and ions are
stronger than the attractive forces within the ionic compound. CaOH is a slightly insoluble
compound, the solubility of CaOH is approximately 0.189 g/100 mL of water at 20. A more
soluble ionic compounds solubility such as NaCl is only 35.7 g/100 mL of water at 20°C. CaOH is
only slightly insoluble as calcium and oxygen are +2 and –2 ions in

Two Types of Solids
March 2, 2011
Lab Report
Physical Properties of Two Types of Solids
SCH3U0
Maggie Liu
Abstract
The purpose of this lab is to study some of the physical properties of two types of solids – ionic and
molecular. The samples used are sodium chloride (ionic) and camphor (molecular). The physical
properties studied are odour, hardness, melting point, solubility in water and solubility in 2–
propanol. It is observed that some of the physical properties of sodium chloride are no odours, hard,
a high melting point, soluble in water and insoluble in 2–propanol; some of the physical properties
of camphor are a strong odour, soft, a low melting point, insoluble in water and soluble in 2–
propanol. A few conclusions can be drawn from these ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Noted the observations for each solid in both water and 2–propanol.
Observations
|Physical property |Sodium chloride |camphor |
|Odour |No odour |Strong (mint) |
|Hardness |hard |soft |
|Melting point |high |low |
|Solubility in water |soluble |insoluble |
|Solubility in 2–propanol |insoluble |soluble |
Sodium chloride does not have any odours, whereas camphor has a strong mint–like smell. It is
found that ionic compounds usually do not have odours because they are solids and the particles are
all held tightly which makes the gas nearly impossible to be released into air and make the smell,
however, many molecular solids do have odours because their particles are not held very tightly and
there is space between the particles. Vapor or gas can be produced and released into air which causes
smell. Sodium chloride is harder than camphor.

Density Of Olive Oil And Baby Oil
Introduction It can be observed that different liquids have different properties. One property of
liquids that could be tested would be the density of different types, leading to the question of
whether different liquids have different densities. The question could be supported by finding even
two liquids with different densities, so limiting the liquids to water, olive oil and baby oil works.
Density is how compact something is. Regarding density, water has the unusual trait of less dense as
a liquid then a solid, since the molecules become more uniform and spaced out when frozen
(Shuster and others 2014). This is because water coheres to itself because of hydrogen bonds, which
are there because the unequal sharing of atoms between ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This supports the observation that all liquids are not the same and will vary in properties. Based on
these results, water molecules are more compact than the molecules of baby oil and olive oil.
Because of this, the other two liquids may have molecules more even structured, causing more space
between them, or that they nonpolar covalent bonds, which are weaker then the polar bonds that
water does. This experiment also did not support the hypothesis that olive oil would float on baby
oil, and that both would float on water, as the baby oil had a smaller density then the olive oil.
However, there might have been errors in recording the masses of the liquids or the cylinders, or
with the scales measuring the mass. Also, many of the calculations were conducted and reported
quickly, so there might have been a mistake made in finding or sharing the densities for the group
averages. To continue to compare the qualities of different types of liquids, other experiments should
test at what temperature different liquids freeze or evaporate, or examine the opacity of different
liquids, or something

Melting Point And Boling Point
Introduction: Melting point and Boling point are two fundamental physical properties that are
commonly used to identify unknown compounds, to verify already known compounds, and to
determine the purity of compounds.2 If the compound is a solid, the procedure for melting point
determination is followed. However, if it is a liquid a boiling point technique must be performed,
such as distillation or refluxing.2
The melting point determination consists of five major steps: obtain the sample and make sure it is
grinded, fill 2–3 capillary tubes with the sample, ensure that the sample is tightly packed, insert the
tubes into the Melting Point Apparatus to run a fast and a slow ramp, and finally record the data.3
Grinding the sample could be done by several methods. A large stainless steel spatula could be used
to directly crush the tiny crystals into fine powder, or the sample could be first placed within a
folded piece of filter paper and then pressed with the spatula.2 A mortar and pestle are also an
appropriate instrument to grind the sample.4 Next, the adequate amount of sample, which is 1–2mm,
should be collected with each capillary tube.2 If less sample is collected, it is much harder to see
when the first and last droplets form, making it difficult for the chemist to record melting range
temperatures.6 If the capillary tubes are filled with larger sample, this could cause uneven heating
during the fast and slow ramps and could also provide inaccurate melting range that is

How Temperature Affects The Solubility Of Salt Crystals
Science – Final Submission Extended Experimental Investigation
How temperature affects the solubility of salt crystals in water
Sanjitha Dissanayake 10H
Introduction:
Intermolecular forces hold molecules together when they are in solid or liquid state. However, water
has the ability to dissociate many salts and ionic compounds. This is called dissolving. When NaCl
is added to water, it dissociates into the ions; Na+ and Cl– . The positive sodium ions are surrounded
by the slightly negatively charged part of water molecules (i.e. oxygen) in the water molecules and
the negative chlorine ions are surrounded by the slightly positively charged part of water molecules
(i.e. the hydrogen). The kinetic energy of the sodium chloride molecules increase with temperature.
This destabilizes the solid state that it is currently in. This increased motion means that the
molecules are less able to hold together and as such they dissolve at faster rates and larger amounts.
Some terms that have to be defined are:
1. Solution – A solution is the end product of when a solvent and a solute are mixed.
2. Solvent – A solvent is the liquid that dissolves the solute to create the solution.
3. Solute – A solute is the material (solid, liquid or gas) that is dissolved in the solvent to create the
solution.
4. Saturated solution – A solution is saturated when it holds the maximum amount of solute that it
can dissolve.
5. Unsaturated solution – A solution is unsaturated

How The Concrete Formed After Hydration Essay
INTRODUCTION
When cement is mixed with water in order to prepare concrete, the
hardened concrete formed after hydration is not a solid mass but a porous
material. There is formation of pores due to water which is initially added.
Water occupies some fraction of the total initial volume and after the
hydration of cement water is held physically, chemically or is adsorbed on
product after hydration. This leads to formation of different types of pore
structure inside the hydrated cement.
CLASSIFICATION OF PORES STRUCTURES IN HYDRATED
CEMENT
1. Capillary pores:–The hydration of cement leads to formation of a
network of hydrated solid product with the left empty spaces between
the hydrated products that are occupied by water left after hydration.
These residual spaces are known as capillary pores. The capillary porosity
of the cement paste depends on the original water–cement ratio and on
the amount of cement that has become hydrated. Capillary pores volume
reduces with time by precipitation of hydrates, into originally water filled
space. Capillary pores have high irregular shapes. Capillary pores are

assumed to have a major effect on transportation process but only minor
effect on hydration rates. These pores represents about 18.5% of the
original volume of dry cement. Further classification of capillary pores are
a) Large capillary pores: – These are pores with large space and they
b) Medium capillary pores: – These are medium pores

Types Of Enthalpy Changes In Chemical And Chemical Changes
Enthalpy changes in chemical and physical processes– M1 and D1
By sharing electrons, atoms within a molecule that are attracted to one another is called an
intramolecular force. Between the molecules intermolecular force, the physical properties for
example the melting points and boiling points, relate to the solubility and the strength of these force.
Protons are positive components and electrons are negative components. The attractive force that
exists between the two is known as an intermolecular force due to the atoms and molecules of the
substance. Intermolecular forces have four types:
Ionic forces – This is like the dipole–dipole interaction but it differs slightly as ions are used as well
as polar molecules. ions are held together by electrostatic forces in ionic solids. The charges in an
ion are attracted to each other because they are opposites. "This force is the strongest intermolecular
force." In a crystal lattice structure, the ion forces hold the ions together.
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep35684 Dipole Forces – When a molecule has two poles they are
called dipoles or polar covalent molecules. The molecule will have a partial positive charge on one
pole whilst the other pole will have a different charge that is partially negative. Therefore, the
molecules will rearrange themselves so the charges are attracted to the opposite charge so it works.
Hydrogen Bonds– "when the hydrogen of an electronegative atom of one molecules is attached to an

Lab Report on Solubility
Separation of the Components of a Mixture
General Chemistry 1 (Chem 101), ISP SCUHS
Report 2
January 26, 2014
Abstract
The analyses of mixture were to distinguish and identify homogeneous mixture by using the
techniques of decantation and sublimation. By performing these techniques, we examined our
solutions such as SiO2 (sand), NH4Cl (ammonium chloride), and NaCl (sodium chloride) and
mixed H2O (water) with each solution after being heated. After examining our solutions, we made
calculations by finding the percent mass of each solution once the experiment was completed. In our
findings, we were able to determine the mass of the determined and the percent recovery of matter.
The outcome of the experiment was that we made the correct ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The remaining NaCl and SiO2 will be combined with H2O, where NaCl will be extracted. The
residue will be SiO2, where it will be heated.
Materials and Methods
I. Materials
1. Evaporating dish
2. Beakers
3. Test tube
4. Hotplate
5. Scale
6. Spatula
7. Funnel
8. Filter Paper
9. Components of mixture
10. Stirring rod
II. Methods
A. Preliminary Steps
1. Obtain a sample of the mixture. The mixture you will separate contains three components: NaCl,
NH4Cl, and SiO2. Their separation will be accomplished by heating the mixture to sub–lime the
NH4Cl, extracting the NaCl with water, and drying the remaining SiO2.
2. Obtain an evaporating dish and carefully weigh it to the nearest 0.01g on top of the loading scale
and record its mass on the data sheet.

3. Place about 3g of the mixture into the evaporating dish and carefully weigh it to the nearest 0.01g
with the top loading scale and record its mass on the data sheet.
4. Determine the mass of the mixture by subtracting the mass of the empty evaporating dish from
the mass of the evaporating dish containing the mixture and record the calculated mass onto the data
sheet.
B. Sublimation Steps
1. Place the beaker containing the mixture on the hot plate and heat until the white fumes no longer
form (about 15 minutes) during the sublimation process.
2. Allow the beaker to cool until it reaches room temperature; then weigh the beaker with the
contained solid. The loss in mass represents the amount of NH4Cl in your

Trigonometry Lab Report

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

More from Alexis Naranjo

More from Alexis Naranjo (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Trigonometry Lab Report