Symptoms And Treatment Of Tetrodotoxin Poisoning

Symptoms And Treatment Of Tetrodotoxin Poisoning
The patient that was presented in the ER had a severe headache, unusual degree of sweating
(diaphoresis), inability to produce or control body movement (motor dysfunction), abnormal
sensation with no apparent physical cause (paresthesia), feeling of sickness with the urge to vomit
(nausea) , and an ascending paralysis that spread to the upper body, arms, face, and head along with
a bluish discoloration to the skin (cyanotic), inadequate ventilation (hypo–ventilating) and also
developed a slow heart rate (bradycardia) with a BP of 90/50. The diagnosis was still unclear at this
time with an un–known medical history but atropine was administered to treat for the bradycardia.
There was a diagnosis of tetrodotoxin poisoning based on the current symptoms therefor a hydration
IV, a stomach pump (gastric lavage), and activated charcoal were administered to treat the
symptoms. Within a few hours the patient's condition improved greatly and he was on his way to a
full recovery from the effects of the poisoning with a BP of 125/79, HR 78bpm, and oxygen
saturation of 97% on room air, "the fraction of the hemoglobin molecules in a blood sample that are
saturated with oxygen at a given partial pressure of oxygen. Normal saturation is 95%–100 %"(
medical dictionary, 2009). Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen are the four different elements that
are contained in the molecule of tetrodotoxin. The molecular formula is C11H17N3O8, which
means there are 11 carbon atoms, 17 hydrogen atoms,
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Cardiac Function Lab Report
For this experiment students sought to demonstrate how cardiac function was regulated. Students
made hypothesizes for clamping, drug injections, and stimulation with effects of arterial pressure
and heart rate in mind. Students performed various tests in order to fully obtain results for this
experiment which included the injection of drugs and their effects, using and removing a clamp and
that effect, and finally used an electrical simulation machine in order to stimulate nerves to test that
effect. The main hypothesizes depended on each treatment and each prediction was made
specifically to fit a certain set of conditions. These various tests were performed to obtain a better
understanding of cardiac function and its physiological aspects. Understanding cardiac function is
not only very important to science but very important to the ... Show more content on
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Research about the cardiovascular system is important because cardiovascular function is what
keeps people alive. The cardiovascular system really plays a big role in maintaining homeostasis
and sustaining life. This study further demonstrates the vast amount of mechanisms that function
together in order to provide a homeostatic environment. Furthermore, by knowing different
components of this mechanism common illness and diseases may be more easily treated or cared
for. With further research people will better understand prevention and management of this system
in order to live a healthier life. Future studies should spend a longer period of time and have a larger
sample size in order to obtain a more accurate data set. Researchers could also focus on how they
could better understand and possible manipulate pathways in treatment for conditions and diseases.
As a whole, it can be seen that cardiac function is by no means a single functioning mechanism and
instead is an impressive integrating

The Poison of Physostigmine Essay
Physostigmine is a white crystalline alkaloid extracted from the beans of Physostigma Venenosum
plant. The poisonous effects of Physostigma Venenosum have been known since nineteenth century.
William Freeman Daniel was the first scientist who observed the first use of calabar beans. He
traveled to Africa with a exploring discovering mission. Somehow, he ended up at the Old Calabar
near the Niger river. He observed the people, the culture, they way of life that they were lived in,
and government. He documented everything that he saw at the Old Calabar. Interestingly, he noticed
that justice system was harsh. The documented that court was composed of the king and several
chiefs and Calabar beans were used as a justice system. He said, if ... Show more content on
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He decided to swallow one quarter of a calabar bean on an empty stomach. When he realized he
poisoned himself, he drank his soapy shaving water to make himself vomit.
The experiments in the 1800s revealed the mystery of the Calabar beans and its physiochemical
properties. In the 1855, Robert Christison, a Scottish toxicologist and physician experimented
Calabar bean on himself. When he realized he poisoned himself, he drank soapy water to make
himself vomit. In the 1862 Thomas Fraser found the power of physostigmine contracting the pupils
of the eyes. In the 1864, the alkaloid was crytallized by Jobst and Hesse, which they called
"Physostigmine". In the 1865, Vee and Leven independently isolated an alkaloid from Calabar
beans. They called it eserine. In the 1870, the Calabar beans were used successfully to treat
glaucoma. In the 1973, Barthlow discovered the antagonism between atropine and physostigmine.
In the 1935, Percy Julian accomplished the first total synthesis of the physostigmine. In the 1936,
Ed Alburquerque discovered that physostigmine protects against nerve gases.
Physostigmine is white, odorless, and bitter microcrystalline powder, which can dissolve slightly in
water. It is soluble in alcohol, benzene, chloroform, ether, and very soluble in dichloromethane. It is
extremely toxic. Physostigmine sulfate was taken orally in rats. The lethal dose was 4mg/kg.
Physostigmine was taken intraperitoneal and

Neurotransmitter and Maximal Contractile Response Essay
Department of Physiology
PHY2021
Body Systems Physiology
Activity of Gastrointestinal
Smooth Muscle Worksheet
Due by:
Noon (12 pm) Friday April 12
Pre–prac Reading: Vander, 12th Edition:
Section 6D.4 (pp 175–180), Section 15.2 (pp 521–522), Section 15.4 (pp 528–529, 536–538 & 542–
543).
INTRODUCTION
Give a brief description in your own words of the objectives and aims of this practical.
The aim of this practical was to discover the effects that numerous hormones and drugs have on the
sample ileum's nerves and relate this to the human autonomic nervous system.
The objectives include observing the change in contractions during different levels of stimulation
and inhibition, such as that from different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A decrease in stimulus frequency results in a greater number of contractions within the ileum. An
increase in the stimulus frequency results in a decrease in the release of neurotransmitters, further
inhibiting the contractions of the ileum.
B. MIMICKING THE ACTION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM USING DRUGS
 Attach copies of your experimental recordings showing the response of the ileum to the direct
addition of noradrenaline and of acetylcholine to the tissue bath.
1) What was the final bath concentration of noradrenaline you used? Briefly describe the response
of the ileum to the direct addition of noradrenaline.
2) What was the final bath concentration of acetylcholine you used? Briefly describe the response of

the ileum to the direct addition of acetylcholine.
3) Since an inhibitory response to nerve stimulation was observed in all (or most) of the tissues
studied in the practical, how is differential control (i.e., both inhibition and excitation) of gut
contraction achieved in the body? Is it always inhibitory in vivo? What happens in the intact
animal?
C. BLOCKING AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM TRANSMITTER TARGETS
Effect of phentolamine on the responses to nerve stimulation and added transmitter substances
 Attach copies of your experimental recordings showing the response of the ileum to nerve
stimulation and to the direct addition of

Amblyopia
Amblyopia is a common visual disorder that caused by abnormal neural development in the
childhood usually due to anisometropia, strabismus, cataract or combination of them. Amblyopia
leads to many monocular and binocular problems with the affected eye such as impaired visual
acuity, contrast sensitivity, motion perception, excessive crowding and impaired or absence of
stereopsis. In critical period the visual acuity deficit linked with amblyopia can be treated
monocularly by correcting the refractive error using glasses and then encourage use of the
amblyopic eye either by occluding (patching) or punishment (with atropine cycloplegia) the non–
amblyopic eye. They are effective method but residual monocular and binocular visual impairments
may remain after patching and/or atropine therapy. Treatment of teenager and adult is something
argumentatively. Study shows that conventional treatment can be effective in teenager and using
techniques such as monocular perceptual learning may improve the visual function in adults with ...
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Binocular treatment is based on evidence that patients with amblyopia have the ability to combine
information between two eyes if suppression is minimized by presenting stimuli at high contrast to
the amblyopic eye and at low contrast to the fellow eye (contrast balancing). The amblyopic eye
may be structurally intact, but functionally suppressed. Binocular treatments depend on tasks that
require binocular combination of stimuli that are presented dichoptically with a contrast offset in
favour of the amblyopic eye. As treatment progresses, the interocular contrast difference is gradually
reduced to promote binocular fusion. The first binocular balance should be repeated because of
psychophysical motion discrimination task taken under dichoptic presentation

Hypotensive Effect of Aqueous Extract of the Leaves of...
Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica ñ Drug Research, Vol. 64 No. 6 pp. 547ñ552, 2007
ISSN 0001–6837 Polish Pharmaceutical Society
HYPOTENSIVE EFFECT OF AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF THE LEAVES OF PHYLLANTHUS
AMARUS SCHUM AND THONN (EUPHORBIACEAE).
*FABIAN C. AMAECHINA and ERIC K. OMOGBAI Department of Pharmacology and
Toxicology, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
Abstract: The plant of Phyllanthus amarus is used as diuretic and to lower blood pressure in
traditional medicine practice. The effect of the aqueous extract of the leaves of Phyllanthus amarus
on blood pressure was evaluated in normotensive male rabbits. Intravenously administered aqueous
doses (5 mg to 80 mg/kg) of the extract to anaesthesized normotensive male rabbits produced a ...
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The infusion of the aerial parts has been reported to be used to manage non–insulin dependent
diabetes mellitus, for the relief of stomach ache and to treat dysentery (5). The plant extract has also
been reported to have antitumor and anticarcinogenic activity (6). As a con–
* Corresponding author: amaefabs@yahoo.co.uk; phone: +2341–0802–3303–138.
547
548
FABIAN C. AMAECHINA and ERIC K. OMOGBAI
Effect of extract on blood pressure and heart rate Each rabbit was anaesthetized with pentobarbital
at the dose of 40 mg/kg, administered intravenously through the marginal ear vein, previously
canulated with 21–G butterfly canula. The trachea was canulated with a plastic canula to ease
respiration. The vagus nerve was located and separated from the carotid artery, which was cleared of
connective tissues and canulated with a plastic canula connected to a pressure transducer via a
three–way tap. The pressure transducer transmitted the blood pressure to Ugo Basile twin channel
recorder (model 7090), which recorded the blood pressure and heart rate. The channel recorder was
always calibrated before and after each experiment, using a mercury sphygmomanometer. When the
animal had stabilized and the blood pressure and heart rate had remained constant, the extract was
administered in graded doses of 5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg and 80 mg/kg. The effects
of the graded doses of the extract on blood pressure

Atropine Research Paper
Thousands of years ago, ancient civilizations made use of a particular plant that can be commonly
found in the Mediterranean region of Western Europe. This plant, with its stunning purple bell–
shaped flowers and dark, juicy berries (1), has earned a reputation throughout history for being one
of the most poisonous plants that can be encountered in nature (Figure 1). Eating just ten of the
berries can prove fatal, and the leaves and roots of the plant can be even more poisonous (1). Aware
of its deadliness, the ancient Romans exploited the plant's toxicity by dipping their arrowheads in
juices from the berries, and countless assassinations were accomplished by tainting food and drink
with the extracts from the plant (2, 3). Not surprisingly, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Atropine is widely used today in the treatment of a condition called uveitis, which is an
inflammation of the middle layer of the eye. Atropine significantly reduces the amount of muscle
contractions within the inflamed eye. This greatly reduces the pain associated with the condition
(18). Another well–known use for atropine is in the treatment of amblyopia, a condition that is
commonly known as lazy eye. In this condition, one of the eyes has strong ciliary muscles that are
able to change the shape of the lens and accommodate to see near images, while the other eye is
much weaker and is unable to focus properly. This causes the stronger eye to play a larger role in
visual acuity than the weaker eye, which can lead to headaches, eyestrain, and deterioration of
proper vision in both eyes. Optometrists often treat this condition by applying atropine to the
stronger eye, which significantly reduces contraction of the ciliary muscle so that the ability to
accommodate is weakened and near vision in that eye is blurry. This forces the weaker eye to be
used for near vision, which helps to strengthen the muscles of the weaker eye

Heart Rate Lab Report
INTRODUCTION
The heart is made of specialized tissue known as cardiac muscle. Cardiac muscle is made of
myocardial cells which can be further divided into autorhythmic and contractile cells. The
autorhythmic cells are composed of sinoatrial (SA) nodes and atrioventricular (AV) nodes. These
nodes contain pacemaker cells that control heart rate by producing pacemaker potentials. An
example of a pacemaker potential is shown in Figure 1. The potential goes from slow depolarization
to rapid depolarization to a peak and lastly to a repolarization phase. In the slow depolarization
phase, funny channels, which are special slow sodium channels found in the pacemaker cells, open
and Na+ flows in and depolarizes until threshold is reached. In the rapid ... Show more content on
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Based on these results, it can be seen that the addition of caffeine increased the heart rate of the frog.
The data collected is shown in Table 5. Effect of Pilocarpine and Atropine
Before the addition of pilocarpine, the heart rate was found to be 60 bpm, and after the addition of
pilocarpine, the heart rate was found to be 36 bpm. It is also worth noting again that the heart was
not rinsed with Ringer's solution before the addition of atropine. After the addition of atropine, the
heart rate was found to be 20 bpm. Based on the results, it can be seen that the addition of
pilocarpine decreased the heart rate of the frog and the addition of atropine further decreased the
heart rate. The data collected is shown in Table 6.
Effect of Epinephrine
Before the addition of epinephrine, the heart rate was found to be 20 bpm, and after the addition of
epinephrine the heart rate was found to be 44 bpm. Based on these results, it can be seen that the
addition of epinephrine increases heart rate. The data collected is shown in Table 7.
Effect of

The Frog Heart And The Frog Heart
The development of perfusion solutions such as Ringers solution enables us to study basic cardiac
functions. These solutions are based on the composition of extracellular fluid that is able to sustain
isolated organs and allow them to perform as they do inside the body (Silverthorn, 2013).The frog
heart beats slowly and therefore allows us to easily observe the mechanical activity of the cardiac
cycle (Courtice, 1989).
The heart is made up of cardiac muscle. Compared to skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle exhibits a few
differences such as rhythmicity. The frog heart is different to the mammalian heart in that it has
three chambers instead of four (Sherwood et al, 2013). The pacemaker cells are located in the sinus
venosus as opposed to in the sinoatrial (SA) node in mammals. The sinus venosus receives
deoxygenated blood from the veins which drain most of the body organs and empties it into the
right atrium. Oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the left atrium. The single ventricle
receives the blood from both atria and pumps it through a single large artery known as the truncus
arteriosus (Sherwood et al, 2013). There is little mixing of the two pools of blood due to the
structural organisation of the ventricle and the outflow tract. Due to the organisation, oxygenated
blood is delivered to the brain and tissues while deoxygenated blood flows to the lungs and to the
skin through which the frog exchanges gases and water (Sherwood et al, 2013).
During the experiment, a pithed frog will be used to determine the effect of temperature and certain
drugs on the activity of the heart. In endotherms, humans for example, rate and strength of the
heartbeat increases as temperature increases due the effect that an increased temperature has on
enzymatic reactions (Silverthorn, 2013). When the environmental temperature decreases, the heart
rate initially speeds up to increase metabolism which ultimately will increase heat production in
order to maintain homeostasis. However, once core body temperature decreases, cardiac activity
decreases due to the decreasing rate of chemical reactions (Silverthorn, 2013). Because frogs are
ectotherms, their core body temperature is dependent on the environment. It is expected that an

Frog Heart Lab, Animal Physiology
Chemical and Environmental Effects on the Heart
Introduction
The heart is the centerpiece of the circulatory system, its muscular contractions allow for the timely
delivery of essential gases and nutrients to virtually all cells of the body. The pressure created by the
heart also plays a vital role in eliminating wastes through organs such as the kidney, thus the heart
delivers and helps maintain nutrient and waste composition throughout the body. The heart, like all
muscle cells, releases ionic calcium when stimulated which binds to troponin which in turn causes
tropomyosin to uncover the myosin–actin binding sites on the muscle. Temperature has effects on
the metabolism and activity of all cells. Warmer temperatures increase the ... Show more content on
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Following exposure to epinephrine, the heart was allowed to return to its resting state determined in
procedure 1. This same procedure was repeated with the following chemicals: 1) Acetylcholine, 2)
Atropine, 3) Calcium solution, 4) Nicotine solution, and 5) Caffeine solution.
Procedure 4: The Refractory Period of the Heart
Resting heart contractions were recorded for thirty seconds until the heart rate was less than 60 beats
per minute. A stimulator electrode to be used was set to the following states: Amplitude of 4.00
Volts, a stimulus delay of 50ms, stimulus duration of 10ms, a frequency of 1.0Hz, and a pulse
number of 30. The electrode was then placed in direct contact with the heart for 30 seconds at which
time the data was observed and recorded.
Procedure 5: Effects of a Ligature on the Heart
A 30cm piece of thread was placed around the heart at the Atrioventricular groove (AV groove) and
tied in a knot but left loose so as to not interrupt the normal function of the heart. The heart was
allowed to beat for about 15 seconds with no pressure. After 15 seconds the knot was slowly
tightened while taking care to stay on the AV groove while tightening. Data was observed and
recorded.
Results
Procedure 1: The Heart Rate
This experiment was carried out as noted about in Procedure 1. The resting heart rate was
established and used as a baseline value from which to compare all future deviations. While data
could

Essay Activity of Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle Worksheet
Activity of Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle: Worksheet
Please Ensure That You Have Completed The Calculations In Tables 1–3 Before You Answer The
Worksheet Questions
Table 1. The effects of phentolamine and atropine on the contractile response to nerve stimulation
(20 Hz) in the isolated rabbit ileum
| |Contraction amplitude |Contraction amplitude with the |Effect of nerve stimulation on the
contraction amplitude |
| |pre–nerve stimulation |maximum response to nerve | |
| | |stimulation |PLEASE SHOW YOUR CALCULATIONS ... Show more content on
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The effects of phentolamine and atropine on the contractile response to acetylcholine in the isolated
rabbit ileum
| | |Contraction amplitude with the | |
| |Contraction amplitude |maximum response to |Effect of acetylcholine on the contraction amplitude
|
| |pre– acetylcholine |acetylcholine | |
| | | |PLEASE SHOW YOUR CALCULATIONS |
| |Maximum – Minimum |Maximum – Minimum |Express the effect of acetylcholine as % change
(from |
|

Red Eared Slider Lab Report
Introduction The heart serves an important purpose within the body, pumping blood throughout the
circulatory system to supply all parts of the body with vital nutrients and molecules. It pumps
oxygen and nutrient rich blood to be exchanged for carbon dioxide, which is then pumped to the
lungs and eliminated from the body. The movement of blood throughout the body is due to the
heart's ability to push blood along the circulatory system at a steady, unfaltering rate. This rate,
known as heart rate, is regulated and can be altered at a moment's notice by signaling within the
body and heart itself. In vertebrates, the autonomic nervous system controls and regulates heart rate.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into two subunits, the sympathetic nervous system and
parasympathetic nervous system. The parasympathetic nerve that innervates the heart is the vagus
nerve. In this laboratory experiment, the regulation of heart rate was observed by studying a certain
breed of turtle, the Red–eared Slider (Trachemys scripta elegans). Both chemical and electric
signaling can influence the components of the nervous ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Though data from vagal stimulation was disregarded, it is still important to mention the responses
that should have been elicited had the vagus nerve been stimulated properly. The vagus nerve
(cranial nerve X) is a part of the parasympathetic nervous system and reduce heart rate when given
enough electrical stimulation. Vagal escape occurs when the vagus nerve has been stimulated to the
point of the nerve ceasing to repolarize, and then resuming sending action potential for heartbeat.
The result is a cease or slowing of heart rate temporarily, and then heart rate starting up again. When
atropine is applied to the heart along with vagal stimulation, the atropine blocks any response the
vagus nerve should send (Sarnoff et al,

Essay On Pacemaker Contraction
Pacemaker cell activity is very important for heart rate and force of contraction of the heart. There is
no constant resting potential (Figure.2), it's due to a leak of Na+ ions. That leaks causes Na+ ions
moves into the cell and depolarises the cells until a threshold that activate voltage gated Ca+
channels and voltage gated K+ channels. Anova 1, with values of each section of time after injection
of Ringer's solution, shows a p–value of 0.9513. Thus, we are sure at more than 95% that values
aren't significantly differents between the three groups. So Ringer's solution have no effect on heart
rate or amplitude. Ringer it's our normal conditions control, it doesn't affect heart rate or amplitude
(=force of heart contraction). Anova 1, with values at 60s after injection of each products, shows a
p–value inferior to 0.0001. Thus, we are sure at more than 99.9999% that values are significantly
differents between the three groups. Tukey tests show that a p–value inferior to 0.01 between M1–
M2 and M1–M3 and a p–value inferior to 0.05 between M2–M3. So, ... Show more content on
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Frog or other amphibians have a myogenic heart with only 3 cavities (2 atria and 1 ventricle)
because of that there is a mix of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle prevent by
ventricular folding. In mamals the heart have four cavities so it is bigger than the precedent one. The
fourth cavity separates completely oxygenated blood from de–oxygenated blood. It allows the blood
leaving the heart to have more oxygen than in amphibians myogenic heart because there is no
mixing of blood. Tissues, organs, cells will have more oxygen so more energy. That can play a role
in the behaviour of the organisms. Myogenic heart used specialized groups of muscle cells to initiate
and regulate heart activity. In contract, insects have a neurogenic heart. They use external nerves to
initiate and regulate heart

Frog Heart Rate Lab Report
Abstract In the laboratory, students were to learn the effect of multiple drugs on a frog's heart rate.
The drugs what were used were acetylcholine, epinephrine, pilocarpine, and atropine and
acetylcholine. The drugs were applied to the frog's heart and observations were made on how the
drugs affected the frog's heart rate. The acetylcholine and pilocarpine cause the heart rate to slow
down. The epinephrine and the atropine and acetylcholine cause the frog's heart rate to speed up.
The significance of these results allowed the students to understand the effects of drugs on heart
rate.
Introduction
Acetylcholine should not directly influence the strength of the beat since the parasympathetic
nervous system does not innervate myocardium. However, ... Show more content on
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The first one that was used was acetylcholine. There was thirty seconds of baseline data recorded
and a syringe was used to apply 3 drops of acetylcholine to the frog's heart. After the application of
acetylcholine, two minutes were recorded. The frog's heart was rinsed with ringer's solution and the
heart was given two minutes to recover.
The next type of drug that was applied was epinephrine. Another thirty seconds of base line data
was recorded before the drug was added. After thirty seconds, a syringe was used to apply three
drops of epinephrine. The heart rate was recorded for approximately two minutes after the drug was
added. Ringer's solution was added and the heart had two minutes to recover.
The next drug that was applied was pilocarpine. Again, thirty seconds of baseline data was taken. A
syringe was used to apply three drops of pilocarpine to the heart. After two minutes the frog was
relieved of the drug and ringer's solution was applied. The heart was given two minutes to recover.
Thirty seconds of baseline data was recorded again. Finally, atropine and acetylcholine were the last
chemicals applied to the heart via a syringe. Approximately three drops were added. After about
thirty seconds, the frog was given two minutes to recover with ringer's

Bad Fish Case Study
Bad Fish–Case Study
Part I
1. Present the "Doctor's Notes" portion of the case with a description or definition of the following
terms or concepts:
a. diaphoresis: a synonym for perspiration
b. motor dysfunction: abnormal, disturbed or impaired functioning of a muscle, nerve, or center that
affects/produces movement
c. paresthesias: an abnormal sensation, such as burning or prickling
d. cyanotic: blue/purple discoloration of the skin due to low oxygen saturation
e. hypoventilating: breathing at a very slow rate
f. bradycardia: slow heart beating rate
g. gastric lavage: stomach pumping; a way to clean out contents of the stomach
h. oxygen saturation: a measure of how much oxygen is in the blood
2. As mentioned in the case description, tetrodotoxin is a molecule that blocks voltage–gated sodium
ion channels. Describe the structure of a sodium ion.
a. A sodium ion (Na+) occurs when a sodium atom loses an electron and gains a positive charge
3. What is a voltage–gated sodium ion channel? What is it made of? What is its function?
a. A voltage–gated sodium ion channel opens when there is a change in the voltage of the membrane
and allows sodium ions to flow across its electrochemical gradient. These voltage–gated channels
are made up of amino acids and they aid in generating and moving an action potential down a
membrane or axon (Brooker, Robert, 106).
4. Why do sodium ions need channels to move in and out of cells?
a. Most cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning

Epinephrine System Lab Report
The cardiovascular system is the most important system in our body. Without the vital functions that
the circulatory system performs, the human body would have no way of transporting blood to vital
organs or the ability to transport oxygen and nutrients to cells in order to remove waste. This whole
system plays a major role in maintaining physiological homeostasis (Farley and McLafferty, 2012).
Understanding cardiac function plays a vital role in understanding how human physiology and
anatomy coexist. How is cardiac function regulated?
Nerves have the main function of transmitting signals between the brain and the body through
electrical impulses and neurotransmitters. Through the parasympathetic components of the
autonomic nervous system, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released in order to send a signal to another neuron across a
synapse. During this experiment acetylcholine was used and it is a neurotransmitter that is released
from all parasympathetic postganglionic fibers (Sherwood,2016). The main function of
acetylcholine is the activation of skeletal muscles and glandular functions in the endocrine system.
Another neurotransmitter utilized was epinephrine. Epinephrine is the primary hormone that
prepares the body for fight or flight responses and regulates arterial blood pressure in situations with
adrenaline (Medicine.net, 2017). Although not necessarily a neurotransmitter, atropine sulfate was
used in this study as well and it does closely effect acetylcholine. More specifically, atropine sulfate
is a parasympatholytic agents that interacts with muscarinic receptors on effector cells which then
prevents acetylcholine form binding to the receptor site (Kovalcuka et al., 2015). Baroreceptors also
played a key role within this experiment. The primary role of baroreceptors is to sense pressure
changes and to respond to change of tension in the arterial wall which helps in regulation of blood

Atropine Involvement In Myopia Essay
Atropine involvement in Myopia
Atropine is a non–selective muscarinic antagonist used to slow progression of myopia through
several mechanisms and is known for its cycloplegic traits1, 2. Atropine acts in different ways to
treat, mostly, myopic children by preventing accommodation thereby reducing the progression. It
also has been known to affect the release of the dopamine neurotransmitter which has an influence
on the retina and its signals sent along the optic tract1. Growth Hormone (GH) is also affected by
high levels of atropine in the bloodstream and it affects the growth of the eye itself as GH secretion
from the pituitary gland is inhibited in relation to excess levels of Atropine1.
Atropine drops acts as a cycloplegic to dilate the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A dosage of 2 drops a day for 7 days a week is often prescribed4.
Short term side effects of higher dose treatment (1%) include blurry vision at near, photophobia,
visual discomfort, mydriasis, allergic conjunctivitis as well as systemic conditions such as
headaches and increased heart rate1,2,3 and 4. Side effects of the lower dose treatment (0.1–0.5%)
are less pronounced and more tolerated. Studies involving patients prescribed with lower dosage
treatments showed lower rates of progression of Myopia compared to patients prescribed with the
higher dose treatments1.
Long term side effects are currently unknown but case studies have shown that there is an increase
in risk for ultraviolet (UV) retinal damage as well as cataract formation due to the prolonged
dilation of the patients' pupils. Resent research also shows that within one year of treatment, there
has been a reduction in the progression of 81% in myopic children and the effects of the treatment
control does not continue after the first year3. A study showed that patients prescribed with the
lower dosage treatment showed sign of myopic regression or "rebound" after two years of

Who Is Dimmesdale's Death In The Scarlet Letter
In Nathaniel Hawthorne's book "The Scarlet letter" Nathaniel makes everyone question
dimmesdale's death, and if it was considered an accident or murder. A lot of people might believe
that dimmesdale's death was not to be a murder, however others might disagree on that theory.
Chillingworth made Dimmesdale think about things that dimmesdale wouldn't think of on his own.
Chillingworth wanted to psychologically cause Dimmesdale pain and wanted him to think about all
of the sins that he had committed and how it wasn't a good thing for his to keep them from people
and also to hide them from anyone. Of course if anyone nags you about something that you did and
all of the sins that you had done, you would feel bad about yourself and would want to reveal all of
your sins, well that was the situation with Dimmesdale and Chillingworth. ... Show more content on
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Chillingworth wanted to psychologically torture Dimmesdale. He always reminded Dimmesdale of
all of the bad betrayal and also the negative energy that he brought onto to himself. Chillingworth
would not give him any space to think about what he has done, he just would constantly point out
how bad it was to keep secrets to yourself and to commit sins. Chillingworth didn't necessarily
torture Dimmesdale, but he might as well have since he tortured him mentally. In the novel there
isn't peace between them two. They don't like each other very much. Each of them has a lot of
revenge towards one another. Once you commit a sin or a crime you should own up to it, that was
the case with Hester. She paid the price for the sin that she committed, however Chillingworth is
planning "intimate revenge" on Dimmesdale. Wearing the Scarlet Letter should be enough
punishment and revenge for Dimmesdale. But the fact that Chillingworth wanted to keep messing
with Dimmesdale head is too

Parasympathetic And Sympathetic Nervous System Analysis
INTRODUCTION
Within vertebrates, heart rate is established by the sinoatrial (SA) node of the heart. This is achieved
through a series of action potentials which drives excitation of cardiac muscles and establishes a
rhythmic pace (Fritz et al., 2011). However, there are numerous factors that can affect the SA nodes
impact on heart rate, which are primarily related to the autonomic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the regulation of involuntary functions, and is
broken up into the parasympathetic (PSNS) and sympathetic nervous systems (SNS). The SNS is
most commonly referred to as an organism's 'fight or flight' response, in which its activation is
generally in response to stress, and results in a preparation

Jane Compare And Contrast Morphine And Atropine
Jane's murderous career was discovered in 1901 when a The Davis family, whose mother was
friends with jane When she came to stay with her. She died first while visiting Jan. Awhile after that,
the daughter died after asking for help from jane. Jane gave her injections. Then The father and
another daughter were all medicated by Toppan. However, some researchers said that Toppan
received a sexual thrill from killing, Although it seems extremely uncommon for female murderers.
Jane had a really bad habit where she would experiment. Jane felt like she needed to know how her
patients would react if they were given the certain dosage of morphine and atropine. Morphine
slowed you down and made the pain go away, makes you tired. However, atropine is the complete
opposite. It wakes you up.

Atropine Synthesis
Drug class and naming Atropine's Therapeutic class is considered Antiarrhythmic. It's
Pharmacologic class is Anticholinergic and Antimuscarinic. (Bendall.J. 2012) Primary Use Atropine
is a Non–selective, competitive and reversible Muscarinic receptor antagonist or blocker. Atropine is
a naturally occurring Tropane Alkaloid which is extracted from Jimson weed, deadly nightshade,
mandrake and other various Solanaceae plants. (Bendall.J. 2012) It's primary uses, are for
Symptomatic Bradycardia and Organophosphate poisoning. (Dyller, L. 2013) Mechanism of Action
What Atropine does, it is inhibits the effects of the Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) by
specifically inhibiting the Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine which is an essential component of the
PNS 'fight or flight' mechanism. (Bendall.J. 2012) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Dyller, L. 2013) (The Atropine does not distinguish between the M1, M2 and M3 receptor
subgroups) By decreasing the effects of these Muscarinic receptors, the Atropine is essentially
decreasing the capacity of the PNS. (Bendall.J.

How Does Acetylcholine Increase The Heart Rate
he first part of the experiment, exercise 1, dealing with heart rate and temperature can be seen in
Table 1. It was apparent that temperature decreased the heart rate and this was probably due to same
principles surrounding nerves. If the temperature is too low it is harder for ions to pass through the
membrane and cause an action potential thus decreasing the contraction of the heart. The visual
representations of this exercise can be seen in Figure 1 (before cold ringers) and Figure 2 (after cold
ringers). Exercise 2 was separated into six parts, five of which can be seen in Table 2 and the sixth
one in Table 3. Acetylcholine decreased the heart rate due to the fact that it works in the
parasympathetic nervous system and increases potassium flow into the heart. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The next part of exercise 2 was arguably the most interesting. This can be seen half way through
Table 2 and in Figures 7–10. There was initially a decrease in heart rate when pilocarpine was
added. This is due to pilocarpine acting as an agonist of acetylcholine. Figures 7 and 8 show this
effect. Atropine affects the same receptor pilocarpine does, but has the opposite outcome. The
chemical atropine serves as an antagonist to acetylcholine and this causes an increase in heart rate.
This can be seen in Figure 10. After this part of exercise 2 we looked at the effects of epinephrine
and calcium. Epinephrine caused an increase in heart rate as seen in Table 2 and Figures 11 and 12.
This is due to the properties of epinephrine and the part of the nervous system that applies it. The
sympathetic (fight or flight) system is a stress responder and epinephrine is a key part of this
concept. It binds to an adrenergic receptor, which thus acts to increase the heart rate. Calcium was
supposed to increase the heart rate due to the fact that its presence causes an increase in
contractions. This did not happen though, as seen in Table 2 and Figures 13 and 14. This could have
been due to

Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle Report
Smooth muscle founded in the gastrointestinal tract of the Northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens,
contracts through myogenic activity. However, neurotransmitters from the parasympathetic and the
sympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous can influence the strength of these myogenic
contractions. To explore myogenic activity under the influence of the autonomic control, we
examined the contractile activity with and without additions of chemical compounds associated with
the autonomic nervous system. We also wanted to observe contractile activity under the influence of
mechanical stimulus by manually stretching the gastrointestinal smooth muscle. With the addition of
acetylcholine and eserine a significant increase in contraction amplitude and ... Show more content
The addition of acetylcholine caused a significant increase in contraction amplitude from 0.00983 +
0.00109 N (N=3) to 0.0740 + 0.00807 N (N=3) (Fig. 1). It also caused a significant increase in
contraction duration from 17.3 + 1.44 s (N=3) to 47 + 10.5 s (N=3), the maximum duration
observed (Fig 3). The second compound added was eseine. The amplitude of these contractions
significantly increased to 0.117 + 0.0126 N (N=3), the maximum amplitude observed (Fig. 1). The
frequency of contractions also significantly increased from 1.67 + 0.577 (N=3) to 3 + 0 (N=3), the
maximum frequency observed (Fig. 2). Moreover, contraction duration significantly increased to
41.8 + 5.01 s (N=3) when compared to the baseline (Fig. 3). There was a third and fourth treatment
that added the chemical compounds atropine and epinephrine respectively, but due to the flat lining
of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, measurements were not obtained. After the manual stretch of
the gastrointestinal smooth muscle only one contraction was observed. The amplitude of these
stretches decreased to 0.00167 + 0.000404 N (N=3), the minimum amplitude observed

Activity of Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle Essay
INTRODUCTION
Give a brief description in your own words of the objectives and aims of this practical.
The aim of this practical is to investigate how the autonomic nervous system (ANS) affects the
motility in the gastrointestinal tract, by experimenting with the release of neurotransmitters.
A. RESPONSES TO NERVE STIMULATION
 Attach a copy of your experimental recordings showing a period of spontaneous contractions and
the response to stimulating the nerves at 20 Hz with both a voltage that produced only a modest
response and the voltage that produced the maximal response.
1) Briefly describe the response of the ileum when it is unstimulated and during stimulation of the
nerves.
It is shown that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Is it always inhibitory in vivo? What happens in the intact animal?
C. BLOCKING AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM TRANSMITTER TARGETS
Effect of phentolamine on the responses to nerve stimulation and added transmitter substances
 Attach copies of your experimental recordings showing the response of the ileum to nerve
stimulation and to the direct addition of noradrenaline and acetylcholine, in the presence of
phentolamine.
1) What was phentolamine's main effect? How does it produce this effect?
2) What two explanations could account for the fact that the test concentration of phentolamine only
partly blocked the inhibitory responses to noradrenaline and nerve stimulation?
3) How would you design an experiment to distinguish between these two possibilities?
4) In some tissues there may be a reversal of the response to nerve stimulation in the presence of
phentolamine (i.e. excitation instead of inhibition). Explain how this could occur.
5) Sometimes phentolamine also reduces the effect of acetylcholine. What important drawback to
the use of drugs as tools for investigating physiological mechanisms does this illustrate?

Effect of atropine on the responses to nerve stimulation and added transmitter substances
 Attach copies of your experimental

Detecting Heart Blockage in a Patient
These chambers are separated by valves to prevent back flow of blood (into the atria). Between the
right atrium and the right ventricle is the tricuspid valve and between the left atrium and the left
ventricle is the bicuspid valve. Separating the left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic valve and the
pulmonic valve is found between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
The ability of the heart to contract stems from its possession of the SA node (Sino atrial node) also
called the pacemaker as it generates the hearts own electrical signal and allows it to contract and
pump blood to the rest of the body. This gives the heart a special feature making it the only organ
that is capable of working outside the body if provided with enough oxygen.
The electrical system controls the rhythm of the heart and the heart rate. A problem with the hearts
electrical system affecting the transfer of signals from the SA node to the AV node and then the
ventricles leads to what is called a heart block. A disruption in the electrical rhythm from the SA
node is regarded as an SA node block while disruptions below the AV node are classified under the
AV block which is then further divided into sub–groups depending on the level disruption. In some
cases, people are born with this condition and are said to have congenital heart block whereas those
that get it through e.g. open heart surgery are said to have acquired heart block. Heart block can be
classified as an arrhythmia which is a

The Effect of Pilocarpine and Tropicamide on Human
1. The Effect of Pilocarpine and Tropicamide on Human's Pupil
2. Throughout the experiment, we have learned how to measure the pupil diameter using a
pupillometer, how to measure the near point of accommodation using a accommodometer and how
to demonstrate the pupillary light reflexes by shining the light on the pupil. Besides that, we have
learned the effect of 1% tropicamide and 2% pilocarpine on the human's pupil and how the drugs
will affect the pupil diameter, near point of accommodation and the pupillary light reflexes.
3. Before one drop of 1% tropicamide was instilled into the pouch of subject A's left eye, subject A
was required to carry out the experiment for 15 minutes without the influence of the drug to obtain
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Each baseline reading was taken at the interval of 5 minutes. The baseline readings of subject B
remained constant at 2.0mm from 0 to 15 minutes. After 15 minutes, the pupil diameter of subject
B's left eye continues to remain at 2.0mm until the 30th minute. From 30th to 35th minutes, the
pupil diameter of subject B left eye decreased from 2.0mm to 1.5mm. After 35 minutes, the pupil
diameter of the subject's left eye remained at 1.5mm until 90th minute. As for the right eye of
subject B, subject B was required to take four baseline readings for the 1st 15 minutes before one
drop of 0.9% saline was instilled into the pouch of subject B's right eye. The baseline readings
obtained from subject B remained constant at 2.5mm throughout the 1st 15 minutes. After 15
minutes, the pupil diameter of subject B's right eye did not change and remained constant at 2.5mm
throughout the experiment.
5. Based on the results obtained by subject A, drug A caused an increase in the near point of
accommodation and the pupil diameter of subject A's left eye. From the results obtained, we can
confirm that drug A is a muscarinic antagonist and is parasympatholytic as it caused mydriasis
(dilation of pupil) on subject A's left eye. Therefore, drug A is 1% tropicamide. Based on the results
obtained by subject B, drug B caused a decrease in the near point of accommodation and the pupil
diameter of subject B's left eye. From

Nicardipine Photosynthesis Lab Report
The experiment supported the hypotheses and the aims were met; lignocaine, atropine and
hexamethonium were identified to inhibit peristalsis (53.6%, 45.8% and 56.8% respectively).
Nicardipine completely inhibited peristalsis with 0.0% of the standard amplitude (Figure 2). This
standard amplitude of 2.0cm · H2O was chosen because it caused the maximum peristaltic response
without fatiguing the tissue (Figure 1). A decline in amplitude over time would have shown this
fatigue. Lignocaine, a local anaesthetic, showed inhibition of peristalsis because it blocks sodium–
ion protein channels in nerves. This prevented the initiation and proliferation of nerve action
potentials; hence its use as a local anaesthetic (Nagy & Woolf, 1996). It acts on nociceptive neurons,
which resulted in a diminished amplitude of contraction. This indicates that partial inhibition
occurred. Partial inhibition of the peristaltic reflex was also ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This indicates that the myenteric plexus was the source of the neuronal origin resulting in the
diminishment of sustained contraction (Suzuki & Gomi, 1992). Ligand–gated ion channels are
another form of receptors located in the enteric nervous system, which mediate fast synaptic
responses (Galligan, 2002). These include nicotinic acetylcholine receptors which seem to be
exclusively located on neurons but not on the muscle. Thus, hexamethonium will interrupt neuronal
transmission with varying inhibition levels. Alternatively, cholinergic excitation of intestinal muscle
occurs due to muscarinic acetylcholine receptors that are blocked by atropine although not entirely
(Wood, 1972). Therefore, as both cholinergic antagonists, atropine and hexamethonium, failed to
completely inhibit peristalsis, cholinergic transmission must be involved in the coordination of this
reflex

Blood Of Plasma And Formed Elements
Conclusion:–
Blood consists of plasma and formed elements. Erythrocytes transport mainly oxygen to all body
tissues. Leukocytes protect the body against pathogens by direct attack or by forming antibodies.
Platelets play an important role in blood clot formation. The heart is divided into four chambers. It
acts as a double pump system. The pulmonary circuit, which provides for gas exchange, is served by
the right atrium and right ventricle of the heart. The systematic circuit, which supplies blood to all
body tissues, is served by the left atrium and left ventricle of the heart. For each heartbeat, the P
wave indicates the atrial depolarization, the QRS complex reflects the ventricular depolarization,
and the T wave reflects the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Discussion:–
Lab 4: blood consists of two major components: plasma, which is 90% water and nonliving fluid
matrix, and formed elements, which are living cells suspended in the plasma. Erythrocytes,
Leukocytes, and platelets are the three types of the formed elements. Erythrocytes, or red blood
cells, contains hemoglobin molecules and plays an important role in oxygen (and small amount of
carbon dioxide) transportation. Leukocytes, or white blood cells, helps defending the body and are
part of the immune system; there are five types of Leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils,
lymphocytes, and monocytes. Each type has a unique function in defending the body against any
pathogens. Neutrophils are the most abundant, monocytes are the largest, lymphocytes are the
smallest, and basophils are the least abundant leukocytes. Platelets play an important role in blood
clot formation. The heart consists of four chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left
ventricle. The heart acts as a double pump. The pulmonary circuit is served by the right atrium and
ventricle, they pump the deoxygenated blood, coming from all body tissues through the superior
vena cava and inferior vena cava, to the lungs to unload carbon dioxide and upload oxygen, and
then enter the left atrium of the heart. The main function of the pulmonary circulation is to allow for
gas exchange. The systematic circulation carries the oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart
and pump

The Effects Of Different Stresses On Frog Cardiac Muscle
Effects of Different Stresses on
Frog Cardiac Muscle
Brett Cashion
Laboratory Partners: Michael Comisac, Haylee Kaushaar, Jessica Self, and Kaitlyn Strosnider
April 22, 2015
Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences
California University of PA
BIO 318, Human Physiology
Introduction: The heart is made up of cardiac muscles that are striated, involuntary, and contains
intercalated disks which consist of gap junctions that send electrical signals to the heart. In order for
contraction to occur in the heart, action potentials have to first move through the T–tubules to the L–
type calcium channels. The calcium used here is not used for contraction. From there, more calcium
comes in from outside the cell and binds with ryanodine receptor which causes the actual
contraction of the heart. Next, cross bridge cycling occurs and in order for contraction to end,
calcium is decreased by using ATP pumps to pump the calcium to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In the
heart, the heartbeat is maintained by the pacemaker cells in the SA node. For it to maintain its heart
rate, the SA node is stimulated which causes an action potential to happen. The action potential goes
quickly from the top–down and it continues through the AV node. The AV node is another
pacemaker in the cell but is slower than the SA node. It is also the only pathway where action
potential can move from the atria to the ventricle. From the AV node, it goes to the Bundle of His
which then branches

Nt1330 Unit 4 Lab Report
Table 1. This table shows the recording of the amplitude, period, and BPMs for the ventricular
contractions before and the effects of the Cold Ringer's after.
Treatment Amplitude (V) Period (sec) BPMs
Room Temp Ringer's 0.013 0.620 48
Cold Ringer's 0.015 1.185 36
10 sec after 0.014 0.970 24
20 sec after 0.011 0.540 27
30 sec after 0.011 0.520 30
40 sec after 0.013 1.480 36
50 sec after 0.014 1.430 42
60 sec after 0.013 1.235 44
Recovery 0.013 1.235 44
Table 2. This table shows the recording of the amplitude, period, and BPMs for the ventricular
contractions before and the effects of the Warm Ringer's after.
Treatment Amplitude (V) Period (sec) BPMs
Room Temp Ringer's 0.009 0.220 48
Warm Ringer's 0.008 0.220 36
10 sec after 0.009 1.040 42
20 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An electrical stimulus was applied to the heart; the following graph shows the refractory period of
the frog's heart when an extra–systole was induced. It can be seen that right after the recording was
marked "Refractory 3," an extra–systole was detected.
The effects of a ligature around the AV groove presented no difference in the contraction of atria or
ventricle after the first tightening. After the string was tightened further, the ventricular contractions
were lost and the atria beat alone at 60 BPM. The AV signal between the chambers was blocked.
Figure 4. The normal heart rate of the frog before the ligature was tightened.
Figure 5. The atrial contractions after the ligature was tightened. No ventricular contractions were

Atropa Belladonna or the Deadly Nightshade
Atropa Belladonna, or more commonly known as "Deadly Nightshade", is a medicinal plant that can
be used both for the good and the bad of the people. Many people think of this herbaceous plant to
be very deadly, and people have a good reason for it. The Atropa Belladonna holds the most
incidents than any other plant per year. This paper will give a background on this plant and much
more information on this specific medicinal herb. The history of Atropa Belladonna was around
before humans first appeared on Earth. It is indigenous to most of Europe, Western Asia, and North
Africa. Though it is widely known and popular in Europe, it is not common in countries such as
England and Scotland. The plant is also becoming rarer over the past few years. Deadly Nightshade
is found in the shade of trees, in wooded grasslands, and on top of limestone rock. These round,
bushy plants grow to be several feet in the air.
Deadly Nightshade received its official name from the late 16th century in Europe. Other traces of
how the name was created were from Greek Myths. The term "Atropa" comes from the Greek figure
Atropos, who is one of the three Fates who handled the thread of life. At anytime Atropos could cut
the thread and end one's life. The term "Belladonna comes from the Greek Goddess Bellona, who is
the Goddess of War.
The Atropa Belladonna plant is cultivated in England, France, and North America. The cultivation
process can very long and strenuous. This herb is a perennial plant,

Acetylcholinesterase and Butyrylcholinesterase Substrate...
Acetylcholinesterase and Butyrylcholinesterase substrate selectivity and various acting
cholinesterase inhibitors
Introduction
Cholinesterases are a group of enzymes present in mammals which breakdown certain
neurotransmitters by hydrolyzing the ester bonds within a molecule (Rang & Dale, 2007). There are
two major types of enzymes, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE).
Though similar in structure, they differ in distribution, function and substrate specificity.
AChE is found in red blood cells, cholinergic fibres and muscle (motor end–plate), existing as
mainly membrane bound (Rang & Dale, 2007). It is highly specific for the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (ACh) and its principle role is termination of impulse ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Discussion:
It was found that BChE showed broader substrate specificity when compared to AChE, hydrolysing
all substrates (at least to some extent), excluding Carbachol. AChE failed to hydrolyse
suxamethonium or carbachol to any extent. It was also found that Atropine and Malathion failed to
significantly inhibit either cholinesterase, whereas Edrophonium displayed short–acting inhibition.
Physostigmine, Nestogmine and Carbachol displayed greater inhibition.
(1) AChE and BChE showed greatest activity when hydrolysing their native substrates; ACh and
BCh respectively. AChE rapidly hydrolysed ACh, however it hydrolysed BCh at a minimal rate
(0.83%). In contrast, BChE showed comparatively minimal difference in catalytic efficiency in the
hydrolysis of ACh, upon which is concurrent with Radic et al (1993) (Figure1).
Owing to its large acyl pocket, BChE is capable of accommodating larger substrates such as the
four–carbon acyl–group of the BCh, making hydrolysis of BCh or the smaller ACh catalytically
efficient (Radic et al., 1993). Furthermore, this principle explains why BChE was capable of
effectively hydrolysing benzoylcholine which contains a large acyl group in the form of an aromatic
ring (Figure1). When compared to AChE, whose acyl pocket is much smaller; BCh, suxamethonium
(which contains a large acyl–quaternary nitrogen) and benzoylcholine are unable to effectively fit

Atropine Poisoning: Was it the Cause of Dimmesdale's...
ATROPINE POISONING: WAS IT THE CAUSE OF DIMMESDALE&#8217;S DEATH?
In an article in the New England Journal of Medicine, Dr. Jemshed A. Khan claims that Roger
Chillingworth poisoned Arthur Dimmesdale with the drug atropine in Hawthorne&#8217;s The
Scarlet Letter. Certainly, Chillingworth was &#8220;a man of skill in all Christian modes of
physical science'; (Hawthorne 65) and was very knowledgeable about medicinal roots and herbs
(Hawthorne 65). Undoubtedly, he could have been aware of how to poison Dimmesdale slowly.
Although Khan&#8217;s line of conjecture is somewhat persuasive and seemingly well
supported, it does not hold up under intense examination. There is much support in The Scarlet
Letter to prove that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another part in the novel that supports the idea that Chillingworth wanted Dimmesdale to suffer
from guilt is when the author, Hawthorne, explains Chillingworth&#8217;s motives in
becoming Dimmesdale&#8217;s physician. Hawthorne says that Chillingworth, being a man of
skill, dove into the intellect of Dimmesdale looking for secrets and precious thoughts that might
help him in the magnification of Dimmesdale&#8217;s guilt (114). The passage on 114 says
nothing about Chillingworth wanting to kill Dimmesdale. Another part in the novel again suggests
that Chillingworth had no intentions of poisoning Dimmesdale. During the last scaffold scene when
Dimmesdale finally resolves to let his guilt be known to the town, Chillingworth says,
&#8220;There was no one place so secret&#8230; where thou couldst have escaped me,
––save on this very scaffold';(Hawthorne 230–231)! If Chillingworth were in fact slowly poisoning
Dimmesdale to death, there would have truly been no place in the world where Dimmesdale could
have escaped from Chillingworth not even on the scaffold.
There is even more evidence in the Scarlet Letter that reputes Dr. Kahn&#8217;s idea of
atropine poisoning as the cause of Dimmesdale&#8217;s death. If Chillingworth were
chronically poisoning Dimmesdale, how would he have

Atropine Poisoning In Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet...
Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter revolves around a Puritan community. Hester Prynne,
Dimmesdale, and Roger Chillingworth, through different, all committed sinful crimes. Dr. Khan
argues that Dimmesdale died because of atropine poisoning, but Roger Chillingworth was not trying
to kill Dimmesdale, the symptoms was Dr. Khan has stated could be refute, and the guilt that
Dimmesdale has suffered, which has lead to his declining death, is what really caused his death.
Roger Chillingworth does not want Dimmesdale to die. Chillingworth's motive and intention has
play a big role in Dimmesdale life. "He became, thenceforth,not a spectator only, but a chief actor in
the poor minister's interior world....The victim is forever on the rack; and it ... Show more content
Dimmesdale lived the past seven years in misery. He suffers from his own guilt, and this guilt is
gradually destroying him mentally and physically. His depression is being shown through a simile,
"Without any effort of his will...to restrain himself, he shrieked aloud; an outcry that went pealing
through the night...as if a company of devils, detecting so much misery and terror in it...were
bandying it to and fro" (Hawthorne 114). He cries out loud as his sound echoes through the night
sky; this shows a very deeply hurt and emotional man, because he has to scream to let all the pain
that he had kept to himself these past years. Guilt has been slowly destroying him causing him to
also decline in health. His hatred for himself leads him to self–harm; "In order to purify the body
and render it...as an act of penance" (Hawthorne 111). Dimmesdale has lost his mind and was unable
to think right. He is so emotionally depressed that he has to hurt himself in order to relieve. He also
stays up night after night (Khan 111), causing a lack of sleep, which could also harm his vision.
Dimmesdale's actions of keeping vigils and self–harm contributes to his declining health as they are
caused by his guilt of not

Analysis Of Datura Stramonium As A Medicine
Analysis of Datura Stramonium as a Medicine
Levi Phillips
Dr. Mark Watson University of Charleston
Taxonomy Datura stramonium is a plant that can be as helpful as it is deadly. A member of the
Solanaceae family, the plant contains three different types of alkaloids. These alkaloids are atropine,
hyoscamine, and scopolamine. Some members of the Solanaceae family are potatoes, coffee,
peppers, and tomatoes. (Gaire & Subedi, 2013) This essay will focus primarily on uses of
scopolamine from the Datura stramonium for medicinal uses. Negative effects will focus on the
entirety of the plant, such as in poisoning cases. The format used for the essay will be APA.
Diseases, Conditions, and Plant Preparation Scopolamine is a tropane ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Those in the research group were split into two groups. Both groups were given methadone for the
first three days. One group would be giving gradually less methadone over the days, while the other
group was given a combination of scopolamine and chlorpromazine intravenously. Depression,
heroin cravings, anxiety, and first heroin use after the experiment were significantly lower for the
scopolamine and chlorpromazine users than the methadone users. (Liu, et al., 2013)
Negative Effects of Plant Anticholinergic poisoning can still occur, however. Two children, aged
five and four, swallowed a tea blend made with leaves and flowers of Datura stramonium. The first
child had no reaction to light, had a temperature of 37.9°C, and hallucinogenic delirium. The second
child had similar complications, with a weak reaction to light, and a temperature of 37.6°C,
Babinski reactions on both feet when prompted. The first child was treated with benzodiazepine
medication, and transferred to a quiet room. The second child was treated with activated charcoal,
and placed under intensive care. The first child was discharges in 48 hours, and the second child was
discharged in 72 hours. (Rakotomavo, Andriamasy, Rasamoelina, & Raveloson, 2014)
Conclusion
Datura stramonium can be dangerous if taken directly. However, scopolamine can be properly
extracted from the plant, and used in a variety of cases. Its effectiveness against heroin

Analysis Of Hubel And Wiesel 's ' Silent Thief '
Since the pioneering work by Hubel and Wiesel in the 1960s, the visual system has become a key
paradigm for studies of neural plasticity, and added clinical interest stems from efforts to find better
treatments for amblyopia ('lazy eye'), a common developmental disorder of vision affecting 2–4% of
the population.Amblyopia is described by; Levi, Knill and Bavelier (2015) as a neurodevelopmental
disorder of the visual cortex. A disorder characterised by Rose (1998) as the "silent thief", a term
that purportedly portrays the consequences of amblyopia going undetected. Amblyopia has been
reported as the most common cause of monocular blindness worldwide Wong (2012), and in a
recent review conducted by (Tailor, Bossi, Greenwood and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
However, amblyopia is increasingly becoming recognised as a binocular disorder. This emerging
theory has driven the development of binocular treatments, some of which have yielded positive
results surpassing those achieved by traditional methods; (Kelly, Jost and Dao 2016; Jost, Kelly,
Leffler, Beauchamp, Birch, 2016; Birch et al, 2015; Li et al 2014). Importantly, findings
demonstrate the potential plasticity of the adult brain beyond the hypothesised critical period for
visual development, Tailor et al., (2016), Nancy (2015). Critically, binocular treatments are
producing encouraging improvements among adult amblyopes Vedamurthy, Nahum, Bavelier and
Levi (2015), Li et al., (2013), posing important implications for clinical practice. The aim of this
essay is to explain amblyopia with reference to 'strabismus and anisometropia'. To discuss
traditional methods and newly developed binocular treatments that aim to address the binocular
dysfunction of the amblyopic brain. Amblyopia occurs during the first 3 years of life Levi et al
(2015) and doesn't develop beyond the age of 8yrs supporting the 'critical period' of susceptibility.
However, this doesn't evident a theory for a null treatment effect among amblyopes beyond this
period.
Anisometropia causes blurred vision usually in one eye inhibiting normal visual perception and thus
causing disparate visual input to the cortex Tailor et al., (2016). Clinically anismetropia is

Laparotomy Lab Report
Three clinically healthy beagle adult dogs (12.6–14.6 kg) were selected for this experiment. Health
was determined by routine clinical examination. Animal in this experiment were fed twice a day and
had free access water and all animal were restricted of food not less than 12 hours prior to having
operation.
Anesthetic and analgesic protocol
In this experiment, we used atropine sulfate 0.05 mg/kg (Atropine, Mitsubishi Tanabe
Pharmaceutical), midazolam 0.1 mg/kg (Dolmicam, Astellas Pharma Inc.) and butorphanol 0.1
mg/kg (Bettlefare, Meiji Seika Pharma) as premedicated intravenously administration. Ampicillin
sodium 20 mg/kg (Vicillin, Meiji Seika Pharma) was administered intravenously at induction.
General anesthesia was induced with intravenous propofol 6 mg/kg (Animal propofol, Mylan
Pharmaceutical). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The surgery procedure was performed a large ventral midline laparotomy started from the xiphoid
process to a point caudal to the umbilicus for enable complete abdominal exploration. After spleen
was examined, packed the abdomen with sterile wet gauze and measurement splenic volume by CT.
After CT scan was done, spleen was taken out and placed on wet gauze. Then, dropped epinephrine
10 g/kg onto the splenic surface and waiting for 5 minutes before measurement the splenic volume
by CT again. When all of the procedure was done, the abdomen was sutured.
Postoperative management
6 hours after surgery, ampicillin sodium 20 mg/kg was administered subcutaneously, and twice a
day for 3 days consecutively after surgery. Feed normally from the first day after surgery. The
surgical wound should to clean at least once time a day. And the stitches should to remove on day
14th after surgery.
Data parameter and measurement method
Splenic volume
Using CT (Toshiba Scanner Activio, Toshiba) for measurement and analysis image using the
processing software (OsiriX, Newton Graphics) for calculated splenic

The, The Silent Thief, By. Levi, Knill And Bavelier
Draft essay
Amblyopia is described by; Levi, Knill and Bavelier (2015) as a neurodevelopmental disorder of the
visual cortex. A disorder characterised by Rose (1998) as the "silent thief", a term that purportedly
portrays the consequences of amblyopia going undetected. Amblyopia has been reported as the most
common cause of monocular blindness worldwide Wong (2012), and in a recent review conducted
by (Tailor, Bossi, Greenwood and Dahlmann–Noor, 2016) was cited the most common visual deficit
among children in the UK. Bretas and Soriano (2016) describe amblyopia as the result of visual
deprivation due to impaired binocular function. An impairment thought typical of the two most
commonly proposed underlying causal factors; strabismus and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Importantly, findings demonstrate the potential plasticity of the adult brain beyond the hypothesised
critical period for visual development, Tailor et al., (2016), Nancy (2015). Critically, binocular
treatments are producing encouraging improvements among adult amblyopes Vedamurthy, Nahum,
Bavelier and Levi (2015), Li et al., (2013), posing important implications for clinical practice. The
aim of this essay is to explain amblyopia with reference to 'strabismus and anisometropia'. To
discuss traditional methods and newly developed binocular treatments that aim to address the
binocular dysfunction of the amblyopic brain.
Amblyopia occurs during the first 3 years of life Levi et al (2015) and doesn't develop beyond the
age of 8yrs supporting the 'critical period' of susceptibility. However, this doesn't evident a theory
for a null treatment effect among amblyopes beyond this period.
STUDENT NUMBER 119049491
Anisometropia causes blurred vision usually in one eye inhibiting normal visual perception and thus
causing disparate visual input to the cortex Tailor et al., (2016). Clinically anismetropia is described
as a difference in refraction between the two eyes Barrett (2004). Tailor et al., (2016) describes
strabismus as a misalignment of the visual axes also resulting in incongruent visual input to the
visual cortex, thus both anisometropia and strabismus cause binocular dysfunction. The

Frog Ringer Experiment
Mechanical and electrical activity was monitored in a frog heart as it was subjected to various
changes in temperature, stretch, and differing drugs. In separate procedures, heart rate and
contractile force were observed by applying various temperatures of Frog Ringer's solutions to the
heart, increasing degrees of stretch, and administering various drug treatments of Acetylcholine,
Epinephrine, Pilocarpine, and Atropine. Results show that Increasing temperature of the Frog
Ringer's resulted in an increase in heart rate. An increase degree of stretch resulted in an increase of
contractile force. Acetylcholine and Pilocarpine slowed the heart rate when they were applied.
Conversely, the addition of Epinephrine and Atropine + Acetylcholine increased ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mammalian metabolic rates are much more demanding than the frog's, due to the fact mammals are
endotherms (increase metabolism to raise body temperature) and frogs are ecotherms (have
negligible internalphysiological sources to control body temperature). The purpose of these
experiments was to enable vertebrate physiology students to see first hand the effect environmental
factors have on heart mechanics. Because the frog's body temperature is regulated by its
surroundings,it is expected that as environmental temperature increases, so does heart rate
andcontraction force. According to the FrankStarling Law, stretching the heart, thereby increasing
the filling of the ventricle, will result in a stronger contraction force. The effects of many common
drugs on the heart are already known. Epinephrine increases heart rate while decreasing contractile
force but acetylcholine decreases the rate and strength of contraction. Pilocarpine

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