Unit One Slides

Chapter 1
Chapter 1. Introduction to Technical Communication ©

Chapter 1. Introduction to Technical Communication © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 3
Technical communication
has two meanings:
• the process of making and sharing technical
information in the workplace
• a set of applications—the documents you
write and the presentations you deliver

You have three roles
as a communicator:
• the writer of a document
• a member of a project team
• an information resource for others

affects your career:
• Companies say communication skills are
important.
• Strong communication skills make you a more
valuable employee.

has six main characteristics:
• It addresses particular readers.
• It helps readers solve problems.
• It reflects the organization’s goals and culture.
• It is produced collaboratively.
• It uses design to increase readability.
• It consists of words or images or both.

Communicators use design features
to accomplish three basic purposes:
• to make the document look attractive and
professional
• to help readers navigate the document
• to help readers understand the document

Images help the writer
perform five main functions:
• to make the document more interesting and
appealing
• to communicate and reinforce difficult concepts
• to communicate instructions and descriptions of
objects and processes
• to communicate large amounts of quantifiable data
• to communicate with nonnative speakers

An example of technical communication
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005 <www.mypyramid.gov/downloads/sp-MiniPoster.pdf>.

Source: Sage Software, 2009
<http://download.act.com/act2010/
docs/act_usability_and_productivit
y_whitepaper.pdf>.

Source: Marathon
Technologies, 2010
<www.marathon1.co
m/why_marathon_vi
deo.html>.

There are eight measures of excellence
in technical communication:
• honesty
• clarity
• accuracy
• comprehensiveness
• accessibility
• conciseness
• professional appearance
• correctness

You must communicate
honestly for three reasons:
• It is the right thing to do.
• If you are dishonest, readers can get hurt.
• If you are dishonest, you and your
organization could face serious legal charges.

must be clear for two reasons:
• Unclear technical communication can be
dangerous.
• Unclear technical communication is
expensive.

Chapter 2
Chapter 2. Understanding Ethical and Legal Considerations
© 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's

Chapter 2. Understanding Ethical and Legal Considerations © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
What is ethics?
Ethics is the study of the principles of
conduct that apply to an individual or
a group.

In thinking about ethical dilemmas,
four standards are useful:
• Rights—individuals’ basic needs and welfare.
• Justice—how the costs and benefits of an
action or a policy are distributed among a
group.
• Utility—the positive and negative effects that
an action or a policy has on others.
• Care—the relationships we have with other
individuals.

You have three sets of ethical obligations:
• to your employer
• to the public
• to the environment

You have five obligations to your employer:
• competence and diligence
• generosity
• honesty and candor
• confidentiality
• loyalty

Four bodies of law are relevant
to technical communication:
• copyright law
• trademark law
• contract law
• liability law

Courts consider four factors
in disputes over “fair use”:
• the purpose and character of the use,
especially whether the use is for profit
• the nature and purpose of the copyrighted
work
• the amount and substantiality of the portion of
the work used
• the effect of the use on the potential market
for the copyrighted work

Adhere to these four guidelines when
you use material from another source:
• Abide by the fair-use concept.
• Seek permission.
• Cite your sources accurately.
• Consult legal counsel if you have questions.

There are two kinds of trademarks:
• Trademark—a word, phrase, name, or symbol
that is identified with a company.
• Registered trademark—a word, phrase, name,
or symbol that the company has registered
with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.

Use four techniques to protect trademarks:
• Distinguish trademarks from other material.
• Use the trademark symbol (TM or ®).
• Use the trademarked item as an adjective, not
as a noun or a verb.
• Do not use the plural form or the possessive
form of the term.

Contract law recognizes
two kinds of warranties:
• Express warranty—a written or oral statement
that the product has a particular feature or can
perform a particular function.
• Implied warranty—a warranty that is not written
or spoken explicitly but inferred by the
purchaser.

Follow these ten guidelines
for abiding by liability laws:
• Understand the product and its likely users.
• Describe the product’s functions and
limitations.
• Instruct users on all aspects of ownership.
• Use appropriate words and graphics.
• Warn users about the risks of using or
misusing the product.

Follow these ten guidelines
for abiding by liability laws (cont.):
• Include warnings along with assertions of safety.
• Make directions and warnings conspicuous.
• Make sure that the instructions comply with
applicable company standards and local, state, or
federal statutes.
• Perform usability testing on the product and on
the instructions.
• Make sure users receive the information.

Four elements of an organization’s culture
encourage ethical and legal behavior:
• ethical leadership
• supervisor reinforcement
• peer support
• reinforced and embedded ethical values

An effective code of conduct
has three characteristics:
• It protects the public rather than members of
the organization or profession.
• It is specific and comprehensive.
• It is enforceable.

Companies have obligations
when communicating across cultures:
• They must not reinforce patterns of
discrimination in product information.
• They are not obligated to challenge the
prevailing prejudice directly.
• They must adhere to other countries’ federal
and regional laws when exporting goods and
services.

Follow these ten principles
for ethical communication:
• Abide by relevant laws.
• Abide by the appropriate professional code of
conduct.
• Abide by your organization’s policy on social
media.
• Take advantage of your employer’s ethics
resources.
• Tell the truth.

Follow these ten principles
for ethical communication (cont.):
 Don’t mislead your readers.
 Use design to highlight important ethical and
legal information.
• Be clear.
• Avoid discriminatory language.
• Acknowledge assistance from others.

Avoid four common types of
misleading technical communication:
• false implications
• exaggerations
• legalistic constructions
• euphemisms

Chapter 3
Chapter 3. Writing Technical Documents © 2012 by
Bedford/St. Martin's

Chapter 3. Writing Technical Documents © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
The writing process consists of five steps:
• planning
• drafting
• revising
• editing
• proofreading

Planning involves seven steps:
• analyzing your audience
• analyzing your purpose
• generating ideas about your subject
• researching additional information
• organizing and outlining your document
• selecting an application, a design, and a delivery
method
• devising a schedule and a budget

When you draft,
follow these six suggestions:
• Get comfortable.
• Start with the easiest topics.
• Draft quickly.
• Don’t stop to get more information or to revise.
• Try invisible writing.
• Stop in the middle of a section.

Commercial templates
can lead to three problems:
• They do not always reflect the best design
principles.
• They bore readers.
• They cannot help you answer the important
questions about your document.

Identify the strengths and weaknesses
of a commercial template.

Revising entails reconsidering three items:
• your audience
• your purpose
• your subject

There are two ways to study your draft:
• studying the draft by yourself
• seeking help from others

When revising documents,
ask for help from two kinds of people:
• subject-matter experts
• current and prospective users of the
document

What is editing?
Editing is the process of checking the draft to
improve its grammar, punctuation, style, usage,
diction (word choice), and mechanics (such as
use of numbers and abbreviations).

What is proofreading?
Proofreading is the process of checking to
make sure you have typed what you meant to
type.

Chapter 4
Chapter 4. Writing Collaboratively © 2012 by Bedford/St.
Martin's

Chapter 4. Writing Collaboratively © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
You can collaborate with others
in three basic ways:
• collaborating face to face
• collaborating electronically
• collaborating with a combination of face-to-face
meetings and electronic tools

Collaboration has six advantages:
• It draws on a greater knowledge base.
• It draws on a greater skills base.
• It provides a better idea of how the audience will read
the document.
• It improves communication among employees.
• It helps acclimate new employees to an organization.
• It motivates employees to help an organization grow.

Collaboration has six disadvantages:
• It takes more time than individual writing.
• It can lead to groupthink.
• It can yield a disjointed document.
• It can lead to inequitable workloads.
• It can reduce a person’s motivation to work hard
on the document.
• It can lead to interpersonal conflict.

Follow these seven suggestions
for managing your projects:
• Break down a large project into several
smaller tasks.
• Plan your project.
• Create and maintain an accurate schedule.
• Put your decisions in writing.
• Monitor the project.
• Distribute and act on information quickly.
• Be flexible regarding schedule and
responsibilities.

Conducting meetings involves five skills:
• listening effectively
• setting your team’s agenda
• conducting efficient meetings
• communicating diplomatically
• critiquing a team member's work

Follow these five steps to
improve your effectiveness as a listener:
• Pay attention to the speaker.
• Listen for main ideas.
• Don’t get emotionally involved with the speaker's
ideas.
• Ask questions to clarify what the speaker said.
• Provide appropriate feedback.

There are eight steps in
setting your team's agenda:
• Define the team’s task.
• Choose a team leader.
• Define tasks for each team member.
• Establish working procedures.

There are eight steps in
setting your agenda (cont.):
• Establish a procedure for resolving conflict
productively.
• Create a style sheet.
• Establish a work schedule.
• Create evaluation materials.
Chapter 4. Writing Collaboratively © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's

Communicating diplomatically
requires seven skills:
• Listen carefully, without interrupting.
• Give everyone a chance to speak.
• Avoid personal remarks and insults.
• Don’t overstate your position.
• Don’t get emotionally attached to your own ideas.
• Ask pertinent questions.
• Pay attention to nonverbal communication.

Critiquing a group member’s
work involves three steps:
• Start with a positive comment.
• Discuss the larger issues first.
• Talk about the document, not the writer.

Critique a draft clearly and diplomatically.

Three powerful word-processor features
can be useful in collaborative work:
• the comment feature
• the revision feature
• the highlighting feature

Electronic media are useful
collaborative tools for three reasons:
• Face-to-face meetings are not always
possible or convenient.
• Organizations can benefit when more people
can participate and share their ideas.
• Electronic communication is convenient and
often instantaneous.

Besides a word processor, there are four
main types of collaboration technologies:
• Messaging technologies
• Videoconferencing
• Wikis and shared document workspaces
• Virtual worlds

Follow these six suggestions for
conducting effective videoconferences:
• Practice using videoconferencing technology.
• Arrange for technical support at each site.
• Organize the room to encourage participation.
• Make eye contact with the camera.
• Dress as you would for a face-to-face
meeting.
• Minimize distracting noises and movements.

If you use social media,
maintain a professional online presence:
• Don’t use it for nonbusiness purposes.
• Don’t divulge secure information.
• Don’t divulge private information about anyone.
• Don’t make racist or sexist comments or post pictures
of people drinking.

When collaborating across cultures,
consider that people from other cultures:
• might find it difficult to assert themselves in
collaborative teams
• might be unwilling to respond with a definite “no”
• might be reluctant to admit when they are confused or
to ask for clarification
• might avoid criticizing others
• might avoid initiating new tasks or performing
creatively

Chapter 11
Chapter 11. Designing Documents and Web Sites ©
2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's

Chapter 11. Designing Documents and Web Sites © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
Document and Web design has five goals:
• to make a good impression on readers
• to help readers understand the structure and
hierarchy of the information
• to help readers find the information they need
• to help readers understand the information
• to help readers remember the information

There are four principles of design:
• proximity
• alignment
• repetition
• contrast

Proximity organizes this image:
Source: U.S. Department of State, 2011
<http://future.state.gov>.

Alignment organizes this image:
Source: Carnegie Science Center, n.d.

Repetition organizes this image:
Source: Myers, 2007, p. 362.

Contrast clarifies this image:
Source: Lambert Coffin, 2010 <www.lambertcoffin.com/index.php?sid=2>.

To plan a design, take these two steps:
• Analyze your audience and purpose.
• Determine your resources.

For multicultural readers,
consider four cultural preferences:
• paper size
• typeface preferences
• color preferences
• text direction

Determine your resources:
• Time. What is your schedule?
• Money. Can you afford professional designers,
print shops, and Web developers?
• Equipment. Do you have graphics software,
desktop-publishing programs, and a printer?

Consider these four elements
when designing documents:
• size (page size and page count)
• paper
• bindings
• accessing aids

Select one of four
common types of binding:
• loose-leaf binders
• ring or spiral binders
• saddle binding
• perfect binding

Consider using six typical accessing aids:
• icons
• color
• dividers and tabs
• cross-reference tables
• headers and footers
• page numbering

Understand how learning
theory relates to page design:
• chunking
• queuing
• filtering

Use two elements
to create your page layout:
• page grids
• white space

Margins have four purposes:
• to limit the amount of information on the page,
making the document easier to read and use
• to provide space for binding and allow readers
to hold the page without covering up the text
• to provide a neat frame around the type
• to provide space for marginal glosses

A document bound like a book
has these margins:

A multicolumn design
offers three advantages:
• Text is easier to read because the lines are
shorter.
• Columns allow you to fit more information on
the page.
• Columns let you use the principle of repetition
to create a visual pattern.

Typography includes seven topics:
• typefaces
• type families
• case
• type size
• line length
• line spacing
• justification

Different typefaces
make different impressions:
This paragraph is typed in Monotype Corsiva typeface. You are unlikely
to see this style of font in a technical document because it is too ornate
and too hard to read.
This paragraph is Times Roman, an effective typeface for text
in the body of technical documents.
This paragraph is Tahoma, which has a modern, high-
tech look. It is best suited for headings and titles in
technical documents.

Two main categories of typefaces
are serif and sans serif:
N N
serif sans serif

A type family includes many variations:
Some of the members of the Helvetica family:
Helvetica
Helvetica Bold
Helvetica Bold Italic
Helvetica Narrow
Helvetica Narrow Bold
Helvetica Narrow Bold Italic

Case affects readability:
Lowercase letters are easier to read:
Individual variations are greater in lowercase words
THAN THEY ARE IN UPPERCASE WORDS.

Different functions
call for different type sizes:
footnotes 8- or 9-point type
body text 10-, 11-, or 12-point type
headings 2 to 4 points larger than body text
indexes 2 points smaller than body text
titles 18 or 24 points
slides 24- to 36-point type

Use line spacing carefully
when designing headings:
Summary
In this example, the writer has skipped a line between
the heading and the text that follows it.
Summary
In this example, the writer has not skipped a line. The
heading stands out, but not as emphatically.
Summary. This run-in style makes the heading stand out
the least.

Use other design features
for clarity and emphasis:
• rules
• boxes
• screens
• marginal glosses
• pull quotes

These six principles will help you
design effective Web sites and pages:
• Create informative headers and footers.
• Help readers navigate the site.
• Include extra features readers might need.
• Help readers connect with others.
• Design for readers with disabilities.
• Design for multicultural readers.

Follow these five guidelines for
making your site easy to navigate:
• Include a site map or index.
• Use a table of contents at the top of long
pages.
• Help readers get back to the top of long
pages.
• Include a link to the home page on every
page.
• Include textual navigational links at the bottom
of the page.

This is a typical site map:
Source: National Institutes of Health, 2010 <www.genome.gov/sitemap.cfm>.

This is a typical table of contents:
Source: U.S. Copyright Office, 2010 <www.copyright.gov/help/faq>.

Include extra features
your readers might need:
• an FAQ
• a search page or engine
• resource links
• a printable version of your site
• a text-only version of your site

Consider these three types of disabilities:
• vision impairment
• hearing impairment
• mobility impairment

Follow these three suggestions
when designing for multicultural audiences:
• Use common words and short sentences and
paragraphs.
• Avoid idioms, both verbal and visual, that
might be confusing.
• If a large percentage of your readers speak a
language other than English, consider creating
a version of your site in that language.

Follow these four guidelines
for designing a simple site:
• Use simple backgrounds.
• Use conservative color combinations to
increase text legibility.
• Avoid decorative graphics.
• Use thumbnail graphics.

to make text easy to read:
• Keep the text short.
• Chunk information.
• Make the text as simple as possible.

to write clear, informative links:
• Structure your sentences as if there were no
links in your text.
• Indicate what information the linked page
contains.
• Use standard colors for text links.

This is an effective page design:
Source: Gorzalka, 2011 <http://clearideaz.com>.

This is an effective page design:
Source: Tumblr, 2011 <www.tumblr.com/about>.

Chapter 14
Chapter 14. Writing Correspondence © 2012 by

Chapter 14. Writing Correspondence © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
The process of writing
correspondence includes eight steps:
• Analyze your audience.
• Analyze your purpose.
• Gather information about your subject.
• Choose a type of correspondence.
• Draft the correspondence.
• Format the correspondence.
• Revise, edit, and proofread the
correspondence.
• Send the correspondence.

Select the appropriate application:
• Letters are the most formal and most
appropriate for communicating with people
outside your organization.
• Memos are moderately formal and appropriate
for people in your organization.
• E-mail is best for quick, relatively informal
communication.
• Microblog posts (Twitter tweets, Facebook
status updates) can be useful for informal
questions or statements addressed to a group.

Use these five principles
to present yourself effectively:
• Use the appropriate level of formality.
• Communicate correctly.
• Project the “you attitude.”
• Avoid correspondence clichés.
• Communicate honestly.

Most letters include six elements:
• heading
• inside address
• salutation
• body
• complimentary close
• signature

• attention line
• subject line
• header for second and subsequent pages
• enclosure line
• copy line
Some letters include additional elements:

• modified block
• full block
Most letters use one of two formats:

• inquiry
• response to inquiry
• claim
• adjustment
Four types of letters are common:

• Explain who you are and why you are writing.
• Make your questions precise and clear.
• Indicate your schedule.
• Politely request a response.
• Offer something in return.
• Always write a thank-you note to the person
who has responded to your inquiry letter.
Use this strategy when
writing an inquiry letter:

responding to an inquiry letter:
• Answer the questions if you can.
• If you cannot answer the questions, explain the
reasons and offer to assist with other requests.
• Include additional information, if appropriate.

Use this strategy
when writing a claim letter:
• Use a professional tone.
• Clearly identify the product or service you are
writing about.
• Explain the problem and include persuasive
details.
• Propose a solution.

• Meet the customer on neutral ground.
• Summarize the facts as you see them.
• Explain why you are unable to fulfill the
request.
• Create goodwill.
writing a bad-news adjustment letter:

Use these five elements
to organize most memos:
• a specific subject line
• a clear statement of purpose
• a brief summary
• informative headings
• a prominent recommendation

Follow these eight netiquette
guidelines when writing e-mail:
• Stick to business.
• Don’t waste bandwidth.
• Use appropriate formality.
• Write correctly.
• Don’t flame.

Follow these eight netiquette
guidelines when writing e-mail (cont.):
• Make your message easy on the eyes.
• Don’t forward a message to an online
discussion forum without the writer’s
permission.
• Don’t send a message unless you have
something to say.

Remember three things
when writing microblogs:
• You are creating an archived communication
that reflects on you and your organization.
• Anything you write is subject to the same laws
and regulations that pertain to all other kinds of
documents.
• The best way to understand your responsibilities
is to study your organization’s guidelines.

Consider three factors when
writing to intercultural readers:
• the cultural practices of your readers
• the language use and tone preferred by your
readers
• the application choice and use preferred by
your readers

Chapter 15
Chapter 15. Preparing Job-Application

Chapter 15. Writing Job-Application Materials © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
• Plan the job search.
• Decide how to look for a position.
• Learn as much as you can about the organizations to
which you will apply.
• Draft the résumé and application letter.
• Revise, edit, and proofread the résumé and letter.
• Prepare for job interviews.
• Write appropriate follow-up letters.
The process for preparing job-application
materials includes seven steps:

In planning a job search,
carry out these four tasks:
• Do a self-inventory.
• Learn about the employers.
• Prepare a résumé and job-application letter.
• Prepare a portfolio.

• through a college or university placement office
• through a professional placement bureau
• through a published job ad
• through an organization's Web site
• through a job board on the Internet
• through your connections on social media
• through personal connections
• through an unsolicited letter to an organization
You can look for a job eight ways:

• Who has access to your résumé?
• How will you know if an employer requests
your résumé?
• Can your current employer see your résumé?
• Can you update your résumé at no cost?
Ask these four questions
before posting to a job board:

• Periodically check Internet content about
yourself.
• Use accounts on social-media sites to make a
good first impression.
• Create a profile tailored to the type of job you
seek.
• Project a professional persona.
• Follow through with what you say you will do.
• Help others make career connections.
Assume that employers will search the
Internet while screening job applicants:

• You know yourself better than anyone else
does.
• Employment officers know the style of the
local agencies.
• If you write your own résumé, you will be
more likely to adapt it to different situations.
There are three reasons
to write your own résumé:

• generous margins
• clear type
• balanced appearance
• clear organization
An attractive résumé
has four characteristics:

• It must provide clear, specific information,
without generalizations or self-congratulation.
• It must be free of errors.
• It must be honest.
The résumé must meet three standards:

A chronological résumé has six elements:
• identifying information
• objectives or summary of qualifications
• education
• employment history
• interests and activities
• references

• State only the goals or duties explicitly
mentioned, or clearly implied, in the job
advertisement.
• Focus on the reader’s needs, not on your
goals.
• Be specific.
when drafting a statement of objectives:

Include these five elements
in the education section:
• the degree
• the institution
• the location of the institution
• the date of graduation
• information about other schools you attended

Follow these four guidelines
when elaborating on your education:
• List your grade-point average.
• Compile a list of courses.
• Describe a special accomplishment.
• List honors and awards you received.

Present these details
about your employment history:
• skills
• equipment
• money
• documents
• personnel
• clients

• participation in community-service
organizations
• hobbies related to your career
• sports, especially those that might be socially
useful in your professional career
• university-sanctioned activities
Include information about
your interests and activities:

• Decide whether and how you want to present
the references.
• Choose your references carefully.
• Give the potential reference an opportunity to
decline gracefully.
when providing references:

Some résumés
contain additional information:
• computer skills
• military experience
• language ability
• willingness to relocate

A skills résumé includes seven sections:
• identifying information
• objective or summary of qualifications
• skills
• education
• employment history
• interests and activities
• references

• a formatted résumé attached to an e-mail
message
• a text résumé
• a scannable résumé—one that will be
scanned into an organization's database
• a Web-based résumé
Electronic résumés can take four forms:

• Use ASCII text only.
• Left-align the information.
• Send yourself a test version of the résumé.
Follow these three guidelines
when preparing a text résumé:

• Use a good-quality laser printer.
• Use white paper.
• Do not fold the résumé.
• Use a simple sans-serif typeface.
• Use a single-column format.
• Use wide margins.
• Use the space bar instead of the tab key.
Follow these seven guidelines
when preparing a scannable résumé:

Follow two principles when
drafting a job-application letter:
• Selectivity. Select two or three points of
greatest interest to the potential employer.
• Development. Develop those points into
paragraphs emphasizing results.

• It identifies your source of information.
• It identifies the position you are interested in.
• It states that you wish to be considered for the
position.
• It forecasts the rest of the letter.
The introductory paragraph
has four functions:

• a reference to your résumé
• a polite but confident request for an interview
• your phone number and e-mail address
The concluding paragraph
includes three elements:

• Study job interviews.
• Study the organization to which you applied.
• Think about what you can offer the
organization.
• Study lists of common interview questions.
• Compile a list of questions you wish to ask.
• Rehearse the interview.
Follow these six guidelines
when preparing for a job interview:

Consider these seven
questions before a job interview:
• When should you arrive for the interview?
• What should you wear?
• How do interviewers interpret your body language?
• What questions are you likely to be asked?
• How long should your answers be?
• How do you know when the interviewer wishes to end
the interview?
• How can you get the interviewer’s contact information
to write a follow-up letter?

• letter of appreciation after an interview
• letter accepting a job offer
• letter rejecting a job offer
• letter acknowledging a rejection
Write one of these four follow-up
letters or e-mails after the interview:

Chapter 17. Writing Informational Reports © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
• e-mails
• memos
• forms
• reports
• Web pages
Informational reports can take many forms:

The writing process for informational
reports includes six steps:
• Analyze your audience.
• Analyze your purpose.
• Research the subject and compile your
information.
• Choose an appropriate format.
• Draft the report.
• Revise, edit, and proofread the report.

• How might your readers react to your
informational report?
• Will your readers be comfortable with your
choice of application?
• Do you need to adjust your writing style?
Consider three questions when
writing reports for multicultural readers:

• directives
• field reports
• progress and status reports
• incident reports
• meeting minutes
You likely will have to write
five types of informational reports:

Use this strategy when writing directives:
• Explain why the new policy is desirable or at
least necessary.
• Present clear, compelling evidence.
• Consider opposing arguments effectively.
• Present yourself as cooperative, moderate,
fair-minded, and modest.
• If appropriate, include arguments that appeal
to readers’ broader goals of security, recogni-
tion, professional growth, and connectedness.

Use this strategy when writing field reports:
• Describe inspections, maintenance, and site
studies.
• Explain the problem, methods, results, and
conclusions.
• Deemphasize methods.
• Include recommendations if needed.

• What is the purpose of the report?
• What are the main points covered in the report?
• What were the problems leading to the decision
to perform the procedure?
• What methods were used?
• What were the results?
• What do the results mean?
Answer these six questions in a field report:

Understand the difference between
a progress report and a status report:
• A progress report describes an ongoing project.
• A status report, or activity report, describes the
entire range of operations of a department or
division.

Report your progress honestly when
responding to three common problems:
• The deliverable won’t be what you thought it
would be.
• You won’t meet your schedule.
• You won’t meet the budget.

Two organizational patterns are
typical in progress and status reports:
Time Pattern Task Pattern
Discussion Discussion
A. Past Work A. Task 1
B. Future Work 1. Past Work
2. Future Work
B. Task 2
1. Past Work
2. Future Work

Project an appropriate tone
in a progress or status report:
• If the news is good, convey your optimism but
avoid overstatement.
• Don’t panic if the preliminary results are not as
promising as you had planned or if the project
is behind schedule.

Use this strategy
when writing incident reports:
• Explain what happened.
• Explain why it happened.
• Explain what the organization did or will do to
follow up on the incident.

Use this strategy
when writing meeting minutes:
• Be clear, comprehensive, objective, and
diplomatic.
• Report the events of the meeting accurately.
• Do not record emotional exchanges between
participants; the minutes should reflect
positively on participants and the organization.

Chapter 20. Writing Definitions, Descriptions, and Instructions © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
What are definitions,
descriptions, and instructions?
• A definition is typically a brief explanation of
an item or concept using words and
(sometimes) graphics.
• A description is typically a longer explanation,
usually accompanied by graphics, of an
object, mechanism, or process.
• A set of instructions is a kind of process
description intended to enable a person to
carry out a task.

Definitions have two main uses:
• Definitions clarify a description of a new
development or a new technology in a
technical field.
• Definitions help specialists communicate with
less knowledgeable readers.

Use these four strategies when defining
terms for readers from another culture:
• Add a glossary (a list of definitions).
• Use Simplified English and easily
recognizable terms in definitions.
• Pay close attention to key terms.
• Use graphics to help readers understand a
term or concept.

There are three types of definitions:
• parenthetical
• sentence
• extended

Sentence definitions follow a typical pattern:
Item = category + distinguishing characteristics

Follow these four guidelines to
write effective sentence definitions:
• Be specific in stating the category and the
distinguishing characteristics.
• Don’t describe a specific item if you are defining a
general class of items.
• Avoid writing circular definitions.
• Be sure the category contains a noun or a noun
phrase rather than a phrase beginning with when,
what, or where.

Eight techniques are
used in extended definitions:
• graphics
• examples
• partition
• principle of operation
• comparison and contrast
• analogy
• negation
• etymology

Decide where to place the definition:
• in the text
• in a marginal gloss
• in a hyperlink
• in a footnote
• in a glossary
• in an appendix

Descriptions are verbal and visual
representations of three items:
• objects
• mechanisms
• processes

Follow these four principles
when writing descriptions:
• Clearly indicate the nature and scope of the
description.
• Introduce the description clearly.
• Provide appropriate detail.
• Conclude the description.

Answer these five questions to introduce
object or mechanism descriptions:
• What is the item?
• What is the function of the item?
• What does the item look like?
• How does the item work?
• What are the principal parts of the item?

Answer these six questions to
introduce process descriptions:
• What is the process?
• What is the function of the process?
• Where and when does the process take place?
• Who or what performs the process?
• How does the process work?
• What are the principal steps of the process?

Provide appropriate detail in
mechanism and object descriptions:
• Choose an appropriate organizational
principle:
 functional
 spatial
• Use graphics.

Provide appropriate detail
in process descriptions:
• Structure the step-by-step description
chronologically.
• Explain causal relationships among steps.
• Use the present tense.
• Use graphics.

An example of a process
description based on a graphic

Consider five questions
when designing a set of instructions:
• What are your reader’s expectations?
• Do you need to create more than one set of
instructions for different audiences?
• What languages should you use?
• Will readers be anxious about the information?
• Will the environment in which the instructions
are read affect the document design?

Follow these two guidelines
to design clear, attractive pages:
• Create an open, airy design.
• Clearly relate the graphics to the text.

Examples of cluttered
and attractive page designs
Source: Anthro,
2005
<www.anthro.com/
assemblyinstructio
ns/300-5237-
00.pdf>.
Source: Slide-
Lok, 2005
<www.slide-
lok.com/
assembly/P246
8/P2468.pdf>.

• Danger indicates an immediate and serious hazard
that will likely be fatal.
• Warning indicates the potential for serious injury or
death or serious damage to equipment.
• Caution indicates the potential for anything from
moderate injury to serious equipment damage or
destruction.
• Note indicates a tip or suggestion to help readers
carry out the procedure successfully
Understand the four signal words
used in manuals and instructions:

An example of a safety label

• title
• general introduction
• step-by-step instructions
• conclusion
A typical set of instructions
includes these four elements:

Write effective titles for instructions:
Effective titles:
• How-to. “How to Install the J112 Shock
Absorber”
• Gerund. “Installing the J112 Shock Absorber”
Ineffective titles:
Noun strings. “J112 Shock Absorber Installation
Instructions”

• Who should carry out this task?
• Why should the reader carry out this task?
• When should the reader carry out this task?
• What safety measures or other concerns should
the reader understand?
• What items will the reader need?
• How long will the task take?
Consider answering these six questions
when drafting introductions for instructions:

• Number the instructions.
• Present the right amount of information in each
step.
• Use the imperative mood.
• Don’t confuse steps and feedback statements.
• Include graphics.
• Do not omit articles (a, an, the) to save space.
when drafting steps in instructions:

Typical elements in the
front matter of a manual:
• introduction or preface
• overview of the contents
• conventions section
• “where to get help” section
• list of trademarks

Typical elements in the
back matter of a manual:
• set of specifications
• list of safety regulations and industry
standards
• tips on maintenance and servicing
• copyright page
• index
• glossary

• In what language should the information be
written?
• Do the text or graphics need to be modified?
• What is the reader’s technological
infrastructure?
Consider these three questions when
writing instructions for multicultural readers:

Chapter 22. Connecting with the Public © 2012 by Bedford/St. Martin's 2
• The old philosophy was top down. For
example, a company wanting to publicize a
new product would issue press releases, write
articles for trade magazines, and place ads in
magazines and on TV.
• The new philosophy is bottom up. Now, a
company uses social media to connect with
its various stakeholders.
Tools and policies for
communication have changed:

• newsletters
• brochures
• white papers
• podcasts
Here are four one-way applications for
presenting information to the public:

• banner
• table of contents
• headlines
• bylines
• jump lines and end signs
A typical newsletter includes
most of these 10 elements:

• continuation headings
• photographs
• pull quotes
• publisher
• postal information
A typical newsletter includes
most of these 10 elements (cont.):

• Decide where and how your brochure will be
reproduced.
• Design your information to fit appropriately on
the panels.
• Use the front panel to attract attention.
• Avoid design clichés.
Follow these four suggestions
when creating a brochure:

Follow these seven suggestions
for writing an effective white paper:
• Communicate useful information.
• Use a subtle approach.
• Cite your sources.
• Make the white paper easy to skim and
navigate.
• Help readers who don’t know all the jargon.
• Make sure the white paper prints well in black
and white.
• End with a call to action.

Practice these six ethical values
when marketing your organization:
• honesty
• responsibility
• fairness
• respect
• openness
• citizenship

• Prepare for your podcast.
• Record the podcast.
• Edit the podcast.
• Publish the podcast.
Follow these four steps
when creating a podcast:

• discussion boards
• blogs
• wikis
Three social-media applications
for connecting with the public:

when posting to discussion boards:
• Share your knowledge.
• Do your homework before posting a question.
• Support your claims with evidence.
• Stay on topic.
• Avoid personal attacks.
• Disclose potential conflicts of interest.

• Know and follow your company’s blogging
policies.
• Provide good content without saying too
much.
• Use an authentic voice.
• Avoid conflicts of interest.
• Manage your time carefully.
• Follow up on negative comments.
when writing a blog:

• Know your audience.
• Keep your wiki up-to-date.
• Integrate the wiki with other documentation.
• Integrate the wiki within your community.
• Make organization a high priority.
• Help reluctant users get involved.
Follow these six suggestions
when using a wiki:

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