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1. Anthropology
A Global Perspective
Ninth Edition
Raymond Scupin
Lindenwood University
Christopher R. DeCorse
Syracuse University

2. Copyright © 2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Scupin, Raymond, author. | DeCorse, Christopher R., author.
Title: Anthropology : a global perspective / Raymond Scupin,
Lindenwood University, Christopher DeCorse, Syracuse University.
Description: Ninth edition. | Los Angeles : SAGE, [2021] | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019043430 | ISBN 9781544363165 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781544363172 (epub) | ISBN 9781544363196 (epub) | ISBN
9781544363189 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Anthropology.
Classification: LCC GN25 .S39 2021 | DDC 301—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019043430
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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3. BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xviii
Acknowledgments xxii
About the Authors xxiv
PART I • BASIC CONCEPTS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
Chapter 1 • Introduction to Anthropology 1
Chapter 2 • The Record of the Past 19
Chapter 3 • Evolution 42
PART II • BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Chapter 4 • The Primates 65
Chapter 5 • Hominin Evolution 87
Chapter 6 • Human Variation 115
PART III • ARCHAEOLOGY
Chapter 7 • The Paleolithic 137
Chapter 8 • The Origins of Domestication and Settled Life 161
Chapter 9 • The Rise of the State and Complex Society 189
PART IV • BASIC CONCEPTS OF CULTURE AND SOCIETY
Chapter 10 • Culture 216
Chapter 11 • The Process of Enculturation: Psychological and Cognitive
Anthropology 232
Chapter 12 • Language 255
Chapter 13 • Anthropological Explanations 278
Chapter 14 • Analyzing Sociocultural Systems 296
PART V • STUDYING DIFFERENT SOCIETIES
Chapter 15 • Environment, Subsistence, and Demography 313
Chapter 16 • Technology and Economics 335
Chapter 17 • Social Structure, the Family, Marriage, and Age 362
Chapter 18 • Gender and Sexuality 395

4. Chapter 19 • Politics, Warfare, and Law 421
Chapter 20 • Religion and Aesthetics 443
PART VI • CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBALIZATION
Chapter 21 • Globalization, Culture, and Indigenous Societies 468
Chapter 22 • Globalization, Colonialism, and Postcolonialism 496
Chapter 23 • Ethnicity 532
Chapter 24 • Applied Anthropology 555
Glossary 587
References 596
Index 642

5. DETAILED CONTENTS
Preface xviii
Acknowledgments xxii
About the Authors xxiv
PART I • BASIC CONCEPTS IN
ANTHROPOLOGY
Chapter 1 • Introduction to Anthropology 1
Anthropology: The Four Subfields 2
Biological Anthropology 2
Archaeology 5
Linguistic Anthropology 7
Cultural Anthropology 8
Applied Anthropology 10
Holistic Anthropology, Interdisciplinary
Research, and a Global Perspective 12
Anthropological Explanations 12
Evaluating Anthropological Data 13
Humanistic-Interpretive Approaches in
Anthropology 14
Why Study Anthropology? 16
Critical Thinking and Global Awareness 17
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 17
Key Terms 18
Chapter 2 • The Record of the Past 19
Answering Questions 21
Paleoanthropological Study 22
Fossils and Fossil Localities 23
Archaeological Research 25
The Archaeological Record 25
Locating Sites and Fossil Localities 29
Subsurface Archaeological Testing and
Geophysical Surveys 30
Remote Sensing 30
Archaeological Excavation 32
Dating Methods 32
Relative Dating 33
Faunal Succession 34
Palynology 34
Relative Dating Methods of Bones 35
Obsidian Hydration 35
Seriation 35
Numerical Dating Methods 35
Dendrochronology 36
Radioactive Decay and Carbon-14 Dating 37
Potassium-Argon and Fission-Track Dating 38
Thermoluminescence Dating 38
Interpreting the Past 39
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 39
Key Terms 41
Chapter 3 • Evolution 42
Cosmologies and Human Origins 43
Western Traditions of Origin 43
The Scientific Revolution 44
Catastrophism Versus Uniformitarianism 44
Theory of Evolution 45
Darwin, Wallace, and Natural Selection 46
Examples of Natural Selection 47
Principles of Inheritance 48
Mendel and Modern Genetics 48
Mendel’s Principle of Segregation 49
Dominant and Recessive Traits 49
Principle of Independent Assortment 50
Inheritance and Molecular Genetics 51
Cells and Genes 51
The Role of DNA 51
Polygenic Inheritance 52
Epigenetic Factors 52
Population Genetics and Evolution 52
Mutations 52
Gene Flow 53
Genetic Drift 53
Natural Selection 53
Cultural, Behavioral, and Epigenetic Factors 54
How Do New Species Originate? 54
Measuring Evolutionary Change 54
Speciation 55
Phyletic Gradualism 55
Punctuated Equilibrium 55
Adaptive Radiation 55
Analogy and Homology 57
The Evolution of Life 58
Blood Chemistry and DNA 58
Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift 58
The Paleontological Record 59
The Precambrian and Paleozoic Eras 59
The Mesozoic Era 59
The Cenozoic Era 59

6. Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 63
Key Terms 64
PART II • BIOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
Chapter 4 • The Primates 65
Primate Characteristics 66
Movement and Locomotion 66
Dentition, Eyesight, and Brain Size 67
Vision 67
Complexity of the Brain 68
Reproduction and Maturation 68
Classification of Primates 68
Classification of Fossil Primates 69
Evolution of the Primate Order 71
Prosimians 73
Modern Prosimians 73
Evolution of the Anthropoids 74
Evolution of the Platyrrhines 74
Modern Monkeys of the Americas 74
Evolution of the Catarrhines 75
Parapithecids 75
Cercopithecoids 75
Modern Monkeys of Europe, Asia, and Africa 75
Emergence of the Hominoids 76
Hominoid Evolution 77
Ancestors of Modern Hominoids 77
African Hominoids 77
Asian Hominoids 79
European Hominoids 79
The Extinction of Most Miocene Apes 79
Modern Apes 80
The Gibbon and Siamang 80
The Orangutan 80
The Gorilla 81
The Chimpanzee 81
Primate Behavior 82
Social Groups 82
Dominance Hierarchy 82
Affiliative Behavior 84
Primate Sexual Behavior 84
Communication 84
The Human Primate 85
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 85
Key Terms 86
Chapter 5 • Hominin Evolution 87
Trends in Hominin Evolution 89
Bipedalism 89
Why Bipedalism? 89
Thermoregulation 90
Reduction of the Face, Teeth, and Jaws 91
Increase in Cranial Capacity 91
Fossil Evidence for Hominin Evolution 92
The Oldest Hominins 93
Sahelanthropus tchadensis 93
Orrorin tugenensis 93
Ardipithecus ramidus 94
Australopithecus anamensis: Early Hominins
From Lake Turkana 95
Australopithecus afarensis 95
The Laetoli Footprints 96
Australopithecus africanus 96
The Robust Australopithecines: Branches on the
Family Tree 97
Australopithecus boisei: The “Nutcracker Man” 98
Australopithecus aethiopicus: The “Black Skull” 98
Australopithecus sediba 98
The Origins of Genus Homo 99
Homo erectus 99
Interpreting the Fossil Record 100
Changing Views 101
Current Perspectives 102
Missing Pieces in the Fossil Record 103
From Homo erectus to Homo sapiens 104
Transitional Forms and Archaic Homo sapiens 104
The Evolution of Homo sapiens 105
Multiregional Evolutionary Model 105
Replacement Model 106
Hybridization and Assimilation Models 107
Archaic and Anatomically Modern
Homo sapiens 107
Neandertals and Modern Humans 108
Denisovans or the Denisova Hominins 109
New Branches on the Hominin Family Tree 109
Genetic Data and Hominin Phylogeny 110
Mitochondrial DNA 110
Paternal Genetic Ancestry 111
Neandertal DNA and Modern Humans 111
Modern Human Variation 112
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 112
Key Terms 114
Chapter 6 • Human Variation 115
Sources of Human Variation 116
Genetics and Evolution 116
The Physical Environment 117
Culture 117
Evaluating Reasons for Variation 117
Adaptive Aspects of Human Variation 118
Body Hair and Sweat Glands 118
Skin Color 119
Differences in Skin Color 119
Adaptive Aspects of Skin Color 119
Body Build 120

7. Cranial and Facial Features 121
Biochemical Characteristics 121
Blood Types 121
Sickle Cell Anemia 122
Balanced Polymorphism 122
Lactase Deficiency 123
Effects of the Physical Environment 123
High-Altitude Adaptations 123
Cultural Factors in Human Evolution 124
The Impact of Modern Urban Life 125
The Concept of Race 126
Ancient Classification Systems 126
Early “Scientific” Studies of Race 129
Limitations of Early Classification Systems 129
Continuous Variation and Classification 129
Geographical Races 130
Heredity and Intelligence 130
Problems in Measuring Intelligence 130
Current Approaches to Human Variation 132
Clinal Distribution 133
Multivariate Analysis 133
Current Perspectives 134
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 134
Key Terms 136
PART III • ARCHAEOLOGY
Chapter 7 • The Paleolithic 137
Lifestyles of the Earliest Hominins 138
Primate Models of Early Hominin Behavior 139
The Archaeological Record 140
The First Tools 140
How Were Tools Used? 141
Oldowan Sites and Early Hominin Behavior 141
Man the Hunter or Woman the Gatherer? 142
Current Perspectives 142
Diet and Subsistence 142
The Life and Times of Genus Homo 143
The Archaeological Record and the
Acheulean Industry 145
Hand Axes and Other Tools 147
Living Sites 148
Fire 148
Diet and Subsistence 148
The Middle Paleolithic 149
Changes in Technology and Subsistence 150
Diet and Subsistence 150
The Neandertals 150
Neandertal Ritual Beliefs 151
Modern Homo sapiens and Their Cultures 152
The Material Record of Homo sapiens 152
Diet and Subsistence 152
Ethnicity and Social Organization 153
Upper Paleolithic Art 154
The Migration of Upper Paleolithic Humans 154
Upper Paleolithic Hunters in the Americas 155
Clovis or Pre-Clovis Occupation? 156
Homo Sapiens in Asia, Australia, and Oceania 157
The Initial Settlement of New Guinea and Australia 157
Pacific Frontiers 158
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 159
Key Terms 160
Chapter 8 • The Origins of Domestication
and Settled Life 161
The End of the Paleolithic: Changes in Climate and
Culture 162
Epipaleolithic, Mesolithic, and Archaic
Technology 163
The Epipaleolithic in Southwest Asia 163
The European Mesolithic 164
The Archaic in the Americas 165
The Neolithic: Origins of Food Production 167
Evidence for Domestication 167
Other Archaeological Evidence 168
Distribution of Wild Species 169
Molecular Genetics 169
Ethnographic Studies 170
Why Did Domestication Occur? 170
Early Theories 170
A Push Toward Domestication? Environment,
Population Growth, and Demographic Stress 171
Coevolution: Was Domestication
Unintentional? 172
Agricultural Origins in Perspective 172
Domestication in Different Regions of the World 173
Southwest Asia 173
The Eastern Fertile Crescent 175
Europe 175
Megaliths 176
East Asia 176
China 177
Southeast Asia and Japan 177
Vegiculture in Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia 178
South Asia 178
Africa 179
Pastoralism in the Sahara 179
Domestication in Sub-Saharan West Africa 180
Northeastern Africa 181
The Origins of Domestication in the Americas 181
South America 183
North America 183
Consequences of Domestication 184
Human Settlement and Population Growth 184
Health and Nutrition 185

8. Increasing Material Complexity 185
Sociopolitical Organization 186
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 187
Key Terms 188
Chapter 9 • The Rise of the State and
Complex Society 189
The State and Civilization 190
Types of Political Systems 190
Agricultural States 191
Primary and Secondary States 192
Studying Complex Societies 192
Settlement Patterns and Organization 192
Evidence for Administration 193
Monumental Architecture 193
Specialization 194
Status and Social Ranking 195
Trade and Exchange 196
The Archaeology of Religion 197
Written Language 197
Writing Systems 198
Why Did States Form? 199
Integrationist or Voluntaristic
Perspectives 200
Trade and Exchange 200
Conflict or Coercive Theories 200
Warfare and Circumscription 201
Criticisms of Conflict Approaches 201
Multicausal (or Multivariant) Theories
of State Formation 202
Conclusions About Early State
Formation 202
Hierarchy or Heterarchy? 202
States in Different World Areas 204
Civilizations in Southwest Asia 204
Early Asian Civilizations 205
China 205
Southeast Asia 206
South Asia: The Indus Valley 207
Agricultural Civilizations in Africa 207
The Nile Valley 207
Nubia 208
Great Zimbabwe 208
The East African Coast 209
West Africa 209
Empires of the Americas 210
Teotihuacán 210
The Classic Maya 211
Andean Civilizations 211
The Collapse of State Societies 212
Reasons for Collapse 212
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 214
Key Terms 215
PART IV • BASIC CONCEPTS OF
CULTURE AND SOCIETY
Chapter 10 • Culture 216
The Characteristics of Culture 217
Culture Is Learned 218
Symbols and Symbolic Learning 218
Symbols and Signs 219
Symbols and Culture 219
Culture Is Shared 221
Aspects of Culture 222
Values 223
Beliefs 223
Norms 224
Folkways 224
Mores 224
Ideal Versus Real Culture 225
Cultural Diversity 225
Food and Diversity 226
Dress Codes and Symbolism 228
Ethnicity 229
Cultural Universals 229
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 230
Key Terms 231
Chapter 11 • The Process of Enculturation:
Psychological and Cognitive Anthropology 232
Biology Versus Culture 233
Instincts and Human Nature 234
Human Beings as Animals 234
Instincts in Animals 234
Instincts and Learned Behaviors 235
Do Humans Possess Instincts? 235
Drives 236
Culture Versus Instinct 236
Enculturation: Culture and Personality 236
Early Studies of Enculturation 237
Benedict and Culture Types 237
Mead in Samoa 237
The Culture-and-Personality School: An Evaluation 237
The Freeman–Mead Controversy 238
Childhood Acquisition of Cultural Knowledge 239
Japanese Childhood Enculturation 239
Psychoanalytic Approaches in Anthropology 241
Sigmund Freud’s Influence 241
Enculturation and Cognition 241
Structuralism 244
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky 244
Cognitive Anthropology 245
Evolutionary Psychology 248
Enculturation and Emotions 249

9. Neuroanthropology 250
The Limits of Enculturation 251
Unique Biological Tendencies 251
Individual Variation and Agency 251
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 252
Key Terms 254
Chapter 12 • Language 255
Nonhuman Animal Communication 256
Teaching Apes to Sign 256
Ape Sign Language Reexamined 257
Ethological Research on Ape Communication 258
Chimpanzee Communication: Jane Goodall 258
Animal Communication Versus Human Language 259
Productivity 259
Displacement 259
Arbitrariness 259
Combining Sounds to Produce Meanings 260
The Evolution of Language 260
The Structure of Language 261
Phonology 261
Morphology 262
Syntax 262
Semantics 263
Kinship Terms 263
Language Acquisition 263
Chomsky on Language Acquisition 264
Creole and Pidgin Languages 264
Sign Language in Nicaragua 265
Language, Thought, and Culture 266
The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis 266
A Case Study: The Hopi Language 266
Universals of Time Expression 266
Weak Linguistic Relativity 269
Historical Linguistics 270
The Family-Tree Model 270
Assessing Language Change 270
Sociolinguistics 272
Dialectal Differences in Spoken Language 272
African American Vernacular English (AAVE) 272
Honorifics in Language 273
Greeting Behaviors 273
Nonverbal Communication 275
Kinesics 275
Proxemics 275
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 276
Key Terms 277
Chapter 13 • Anthropological Explanations 278
Nineteenth-Century Evolutionism 280
Unilineal Evolution: Tylor 280
Unilineal Evolution: Morgan 280
Morgan and Kinship Theories 281
Unilineal Evolution: A Critique 281
Diffusionism 281
British Diffusionism 282
German Diffusionism 282
The Limitations and Strengths of Diffusionism 282
Historical Particularism 282
Boas Versus the Unilineal Evolutionists 282
Functionalism 283
Structural Functionalism: Radcliffe-Brown 284
Psychological Functionalism: Malinowski 284
The Limitations of Functionalism 284
Twentieth-Century Evolutionism 285
Steward and Cultural Ecology 285
A Case Study: The Shoshone 285
The Strengths of Neoevolutionism 286
Cultural Materialism 286
Criticisms of Cultural Materialism 286
Marxist Anthropology 287
Evaluation of Marxist Anthropology 288
Symbolic Anthropology: A Humanistic Method
of Inquiry 288
Criticisms of Symbolic Anthropology 289
Materialism Versus Culturalism 289
Feminist Anthropology 289
Criticisms of Feminist Anthropology 290
Postmodernism and Anthropology 291
Postmodernists and Contemporary
Research 291
Twenty-First-Century Cultural Evolution 292
Shifts in Anthropological Explanations 293
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 293
Key Terms 295
Chapter 14 • Analyzing Sociocultural
Systems 296
Ethnographic Fieldwork 297
Ethnographic Research and Strategies 298
Key Informants 298
Interviews 299
Quantitative and Qualitative Data 299
Culture Shock 300
Life History Projects and Ethnography 301
Ethics in Anthropological Research 301
Analysis of Ethnographic Data 302
Universals and Independent and
Dependent Variables 302
Universals and Variables Studied by
Cultural Anthropologists 302
Sociocultural Evolution: A Contemporary Model 304

10. Types of Sociocultural Systems 304
Foraging, Band, or Hunter-Gatherer Societies 304
The Concept of Tribe in Anthropology 306
The Concept of the Chiefdom 307
Agricultural States 308
Industrial and Postindustrial States 309
Cross-Cultural Research 311
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 311
Key Terms 312
PART V • STUDYING DIFFERENT
SOCIETIES
Chapter 15 • Environment, Subsistence,
and Demography 313
Subsistence and the Physical Environment 314
Modern Cultural Ecology 314
Biomes 315
Subsistence Patterns and Environments 315
Demography 317
Fertility, Mortality, and Migration 317
Population and Environment 317
Population and Culture 318
Modern Foraging Environments and Subsistence 318
Deserts 319
Tropical Rain Forests 319
Arctic Regions 320
Mobility and Subsistence 320
Demographic Conditions for Foragers 321
Fissioning 321
Infanticide and Geronticide 321
Fertility Rates for Foragers 322
Environment and Subsistence for
Horticulturalists and Pastoralists 322
Amazon Horticulturalists: The Yanomamö 323
New Guinea Horticulturalists: The Tsembaga 323
Horticulturalists in Woodland Forest
Areas: The Iroquois 323
Environment and Subsistence for Pastoralists 324
East African Cattle Complex 324
The Nuer 324
Demographics and Settlement 325
Environment, Subsistence, and Demography for
Chiefdoms 326
Pacific Island Chiefdoms 326
African Chiefdoms 326
Native American Chiefdoms 327
The Mississippi Region 327
The Northwest Coast 327
Demography in Chiefdoms 328
Environment and Demography in Agricultural
States 328
Environment and Energy Use in Industrial and
Postindustrial Societies 329
High Energy Consumption Patterns 330
Demographic Change 330
The Demographic-Transition Model Applied 331
Urbanization 332
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 333
Key Terms 334
Chapter 16 • Technology and Economics 335
Anthropological Explanations of Technology 336
Anthropology and Economics 337
The Formalist Approach 337
The Substantivist Approach 337
Contemporary Economic Anthropology 337
Technology in Foraging Societies 338
Economics in Foraging Societies 339
Reciprocity 339
Generalized Reciprocity 339
Balanced Reciprocity 340
Negative Reciprocity 340
Exchange and Altruism 340
Collective Ownership of Property 341
The Original Affluent Society? 341
The Affluence Hypothesis Challenged 342
Technology Among Horticulturalists
and Pastoralists 343
Horticulturalist Technology 343
Pastoralist Technology 343
Economics in Horticulturalist and
Pastoralist Societies 343
Money 343
Property Ownership 344
Technology in Chiefdoms 345
Housing in Chiefdoms 345
Economics in Chiefdoms 345
Food Storage 345
Property Ownership 346
Political Aspects of Property Ownership 346
Economic Exchange in Chiefdoms 346
Reciprocal Exchange 346
The Kula Exchange 346
Redistributional Exchange 347
Potlatch 347
Redistribution in Polynesia 348
Technology in Agricultural States 348
Agricultural Innovations 348
The Diffusion of Technology 349
Economics in Agricultural States 349
Property Rights 349
The Command Economy Versus
the Entrepreneur 350

11. The Peasantry 350
The Moral Economy 350
Trade and Monetary Exchange 350
The Rise of Merchants and Peripheral Markets 351
Technology and Economic Change in Industrial
and Postindustrial Societies 352
Technology and Work 352
The Division of Labor 352
Economic Exchange 352
Market Economies 354
Perspectives on Market Economies 354
Capitalism 354
Capitalism in the United States 355
Capitalism in Japan 355
Socialism 355
Socialism in the Former Soviet Union 356
Recent Global Changes in Socialist Countries 356
The Former Soviet Union: Perestroika 357
Socialism to State Capitalism: Russia and China 357
Hybrid Economic Systems 357
The Evolution of Economic Organizations 357
Multinational Corporations 358
Capitalist Consumer Societies 358
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 359
Key Terms 361
Chapter 17 • Social Structure, the Family,
Marriage, and Age 362
Social Structure 363
Components of Social Structure 363
The Family 364
Marriage 364
Understanding Incest Avoidance and the
Incest Taboo 365
Biological Explanations of Incest Avoidance 365
Marital Alliance and the Incest Taboo 365
Childhood Familiarity Hypothesis 366
Incest Avoidance: Biocultural Perspectives 366
Age 367
Age and Enculturation 367
Age and the Division of Labor 367
Age and Status 367
Social Structure in Hunter-Gatherer Societies 368
Marriage and Kinship 368
Marriage Rules 368
Brideservice 369
Other Marital Patterns Among Foragers 370
Divorce 370
Age 370
The Roles of the Elderly 370
Childcare Activities 371
Social Structure in Tribes 371
Families 372
Descent Groups 372
Unilineal Descent Groups 372
Ambilineal Descent Groups 373
Bilateral Descent Groups 373
Clans 373
Phratries and Moieties 373
Functions of Descent Groups 373
Descent Groups and Economic Relationships 373
Marriage 374
Polygyny 375
Bridewealth Exchange 375
Polyandry 375
The Levirate and Sororate 376
Postmarital Residence Rules in Tribal Societies 376
Causes of Postmarital Residence Rules 376
Generalizations on Marriage in Tribal Societies 377
Divorce 377
Age 377
Age Sets 377
Age Sets and Age Grades Among the
Tribal Pastoralists 377
The Elderly 378
Social Structure in Chiefdoms 378
Rank and Sumptuary Rules 378
A Case Study: Polynesia and Stratified
Descent Groups 379
Marriage 380
Endogamy 380
Polygyny 380
General Social Principles in Chiefdoms 380
Age 381
Slavery 381
Social Structure in Agricultural States 381
Kinship and Status 381
The Extended Family 382
Other Kinship Principles 382
Family Structure Among the Nayar 382
Marriage 382
Dowry and Bridewealth 382
Polygyny 383
Divorce 383
Social Stratification in Agricultural States 383
The Caste System 384
Slavery 384
Social Structure in Industrial and Postindustrial
Societies 384
Kinship 384
Family 385
Marriage 386
Divorce 388
Age 388
Social Stratification in Industrial and
Postindustrial Societies 389
The British Class System 389

12. Class in the United States 390
Class in Japan and the Former Soviet Union 390
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 391
Key Terms 394
Chapter 18 • Gender and Sexuality 395
The Complexities of Sex 396
Male and Female Brain Differences? 398
Sex and the Division of Labor 399
The Complexities of Gender 399
Gender and Enculturation 399
Gender and Status 399
Transgender and LGBTQ Individuals 399
Gender in Foraging Societies 401
Gender and the Division of Labor 401
Sex-Based Explanations of the Division of Labor 402
Female Status 402
Gender in Tribal Societies 403
Gender and Enculturation: Margaret
Mead’s Study 403
Mead’s Study Reappraised 403
Patriarchy in Tribal Societies 403
Patriarchy and Sexism in Tribal Societies 404
Gender, Subsistence, and Female Status 405
Female Status in Matrilineal Societies 405
The Haudenosaunee (Formerly Called Iroquois) 405
Gender in Chiefdom Societies 405
Gender in Agricultural States 406
Gender, Subsistence, and Status 406
Female Seclusion 406
Patriarchy and Sexism 406
Variations in the Status of Women 407
Gender in Industrial and Postindustrial Societies 409
Gender and the Division of Labor 409
Female Status in Industrial Societies 410
Feminism 410
Gender in Latin America, Africa, the Middle
East, and Asia 412
Machismo in Latin America 412
Gender in Africa 412
Urban African Women 413
Gender in the Middle East 413
The Veil and Seclusion 414
Gender and Status in South Asia 415
Gender in China 416
Sexuality in Different Societies 417
Codes of Sexual Behavior 417
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 418
Key Terms 420
Chapter 19 • Politics, Warfare, and Law 421
Politics, Warfare, and Law 422
Decision Making in a Political System 423
Warfare and Feuds 423
Law and Social Control 424
Law as Formalized Norms and Sanctions 424
Political Organization in Foraging Societies 424
Characteristics of Leadership 425
Warfare and Violence in Foraging Societies 425
Conflict Resolution 427
The Eskimo Song Duel 427
Political Organization in Horticulturalist and
Pastoralist Tribes 427
Sodalities 427
How Leaders Are Chosen 427
Village Headman 428
Big Man 428
Pastoralist Tribal Politics 429
Segmentary Lineage Systems 429
Complementary Opposition 429
Explaining Tribal Warfare 430
The Yanomamö and Protein Shortages 431
Biological Hypotheses of Tribal Warfare 431
Multidimensional Explanations of
Tribal Warfare 431
Law and Conflict Resolution Among Tribes 431
Ordeals 431
Oaths and Oracles 432
Political Authority in Chiefdoms 432
Limits on Chiefly Power 432
A Case Study: The Trobriand Islands 432
A Case Study: Hawaii and Tahiti 432
The Evolution of Chiefdoms 433
Warfare 434
Law in Chiefdoms 434
Politics in Agricultural States 434
Law in Agricultural States 435
Mediation and Self-Help 436
A Case Study: Law in China 436
Warfare 436
Political Organization in Industrial and
Postindustrial States 436
Political Organization in Socialist States 437
Industrialism and State Bureaucracy 438
Law 438
Japanese Law 438
Warfare and Industrial Technology 438
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 441
Key Terms 442
Chapter 20 • Religion and Aesthetics 443
Religion 444
Myths and Rituals 445
Rituals 445
Rites of Passage 446
Religious Specialists 447

13. Religious Movements 448
Cognition and Religion 448
Aesthetics: Art and Music 450
Religion Among Foragers 450
The Dreamtime 451
Inuit Religion 451
Rites of Passage Among Foragers 452
Art, Music, and Religion Among Foragers 453
Religion Among Horticulturalists
and Pastoralists 453
Animism and Shamanism in South America 454
Witchcraft and Sorcery 454
The Role of Witchcraft 455
The Role of Sorcery 455
Totemism 455
Ghost Lineage Members Among the Lugbara 455
Art and Music in Tribal Societies 456
Musical Traditions 456
Religion in Chiefdoms 456
A Case Study: Law and Religion in Polynesia 456
Shamanism in Chiefdoms 457
Human Sacrifice 457
Art, Architecture, and Music in Chiefdoms 457
Music 458
Religion in Agricultural States 458
Ecclesiastical Religions 459
Divine Rulers, Priests, and Religious Texts 459
Human Sacrifice 459
Universalistic Religions 460
Art, Architecture, and Music in
Agricultural States 460
Religion and Secularization in Industrial and
Postindustrial Societies 461
Religion in Socialist States 462
Religion in Japan 462
Fundamentalist Movements 462
Art and Music in Industrial and
Postindustrial Societies 463
Music 463
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 464
Key Terms 467
PART VI • CONSEQUENCES OF
GLOBALIZATION
Chapter 21 • Globalization, Culture, and
Indigenous Societies 468
Globalization: A Contested Term 469
Globalization: Technological and
Economic Trends 470
Globalization: General Theoretical Approaches 471
Modernization Theory 471
Modernization Theory and the Cold War 472
First, Second, and Third Worlds 473
Criticisms of Modernization Theory 473
Dependency Theory 474
Criticisms of Dependency Theory 475
World-System Analysis 475
Criticisms of World-System Analysis 475
Anthropological Analysis and Globalization 476
Globalization, Politics, and Culture 477
Globalization and Indigenous Peoples 477
Vanishing Foragers 478
The Ju/’hoansi San 478
The Mbuti 479
The Ik 481
Tribes in Transition 481
Native North American Horticulturalists 481
The Relocation of Native Americans 482
Native North American Indians in the
Twenty-First Century 482
Native South American Horticulturalists 482
Recent Developments Among the Yanomamö 483
Pastoralist Tribes 484
Middle Eastern Pastoralists: The Bedouins 484
The Qashqa’i 484
East African Pastoralists and Globalization 485
Chiefdoms in Transition 485
The Hawaiian Islands 485
Forms of Resistance Among
Indigenous Peoples 487
Revitalization Among Native Americans 487
The Ghost Dance 487
The Peyote Cult 488
Melanesia and New Guinea: The Cargo Cults 488
A Hawaiian Religious Renaissance 489
A Lost Opportunity? 490
Native American Knowledge 490
Preserving Indigenous Societies 491
Pro- and Anti-Globalization: An Anthropological
Contribution 492
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 494
Key Terms 495
Chapter 22 • Globalization, Colonialism,
and Postcolonialism 496
Globalization and Colonialism 497
Latin America 497
Cortés (Cortez) and the Aztec Empire 498
Africa 498
Slave Trade 498
Colonization in Africa 500
The Caribbean 501
The Middle East and Asia 501
Colonialism in the Middle East 502
Asia 503
India, Myanmar (Burma), and Malaysia 503

14. China 503
The Dutch Empire 504
French Indochina 504
Thailand: An Independent Country 504
The Philippines 504
Consequences of Globalization and Colonialism 504
Demographic Change 504
Economic Change 505
Religious Change 506
Political Changes: Independence and Nationalist
Movements 508
A Nationalist and Independence
Movement in India 510
Explaining Revolution 511
Uneven Economic Development 512
Peripheral Postcolonial Countries 513
Withdrawal From the Global Economy 513
Ethnographic Studies 513
African Peasants: A Unique Phenomenon? 514
Social Structure in Postcolonial Societies 515
Latin American Social Relationships 515
African Social Relationships 516
Family and Social Structure in the
Middle East 517
The Family 517
Marriage 517
Divorce 518
Social Structure and Family in India: Caste 518
Origins of the Caste System 518
Family and Marriage in South Asia 520
The Dowry 520
Patterns of Ethnicity 520
Ethnicity in Latin America 520
Ethnicity in Africa 522
Ethnicity in the Middle East and Asia 524
China and Ethnic Minorities 524
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 529
Key Terms 531
Chapter 23 • Ethnicity 532
Race, Racism, and Culture 533
Critiques of Scientific Racism 534
The Cultural and Social Significance of Race 534
Ethnicity 535
Anthropological Perspectives on Ethnicity 536
The Primordialist Model 536
The Circumstantialist Model 537
Patterns of Ethnic Relations 538
Pluralism 538
Assimilation 539
Ethnic Violence 539
Racial and Ethnic Stratification 540
Ethnic Relations in the United States 541
WASP Dominance 541
Ethnic Challenges for U.S. Society 542
German and Irish Americans 542
Italian and Polish Americans 543
The Melting Pot: Assimilation or Pluralism? 544
African Americans 545
Postslavery and Segregation 545
The Civil Rights Movement 545
African Americans Today 546
Hispanic/Latino Americans 546
Puerto Rican Americans 547
Cuban Americans 547
Hispanic Americans Today 547
Asian and Arab Americans 548
Cultural Pluralism 549
Multiculturalism in the United States 549
Ethnonationalism 551
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 552
Key Terms 554
Chapter 24 • Applied Anthropology 555
The Roles of the Applied Anthropologist 556
Biological Anthropology 557
Forensic Anthropology 557
Forensic Facial Reconstruction 558
Determining the Cause of Death 558
Identifying Victims of War and Genocide 559
Medical Anthropology 560
Ethnomedicine 560
Ethnomedicine in Thailand 561
Ethnomedicine in East Africa 561
Chinese Acupuncture 562
Cultural Patterns and Epidemiology 562
Medical Anthropology and Mental Illness 563
What Is Abnormal? 563
Culture-Specific Disorders 564
Globalization and Mental Illness 565
Cultural Resource Management:
Applied Archaeology 565
Preserving the Past 566
Cultural Resource Management in the
United States 567
Cultural Resource Management in
Global Perspective 568
Studying Garbage 569
Who Owns the Past? 570
Native American Graves Protection
and Repatriation Act 573
Applied Cultural Anthropology 573

15. Applied Anthropology, Climate Change, and
Sustainability 575
Applied Anthropology and Human Rights 579
Cultural Relativism and Human Rights 579
Relativism Reconsidered 579
Ethical Relativism 579
A Resolution to the Problem of Relativism 580
The Problem of Intervention 581
Universal Human Rights 581
The Role of Applied Anthropology in Human Rights 582
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 585
Key Terms 586
Glossary 587
References 596
Index 642

16. xviii
PREFACE
EDUCATIONAL GOALS AND
ORIENTATION OF THIS TEXTBOOK
The world has become a small place. This textbook is grounded
in the belief that an enhanced global awareness is essential for
people preparing to take their place in the fast-paced, intercon-
nected world of the twenty-first century. Through exploring
the range of human diversity, the subfields of anthropology
broaden students’ views and enable students to appreciate the
full sweep of the human condition.
The anthropological perspective, which stresses critical
thinking, the evaluation of competing hypotheses, and the
skills to generalize from specific data, contributes significantly
to a well-rounded education. This text engages readers in
anthropology by delving into both classic and current research
in the field. This reflects a commitment to anthropology’s
holistic and integrative approach. It spells out how the four
subfields of anthropology—biological anthropology, archaeol-
ogy, linguistics, and cultural anthropology—together yield a
comprehensive understanding of humanity. The full range of
anthropological insights are woven together to reveal both the
distinctive fabrics of individual societies and the threads unit-
ing all of humanity.
Anthropological research is inherently interdisciplinary,
and this text often refers to research in other fields. Anthro-
pologists draw on the findings of biologists, paleontologists,
geologists, economists, historians, psychologists, sociolo-
gists, political scientists, religious studies specialists, philoso-
phers, and researchers in other areas whose work sheds light
on anthropological inquiry. Exploring interactions between
anthropology and other fields sparks the critical imagination
that brings the learning process to life.
A comparative approach, another cornerstone of anthro-
pology, is also highlighted in this text. Whether assessing fos-
sil evidence, ancient artifacts, languages, or cultural beliefs,
anthropologists weigh comparative evidence, while acknowl-
edging the unique elements of each archaeological site, fossil
locality, society, or culture.
This book casts an inquiring eye on materials from
numerous geographical regions and historical eras to enrich
students’ understanding. In evaluating human evolution,
prehistoric events, language divergence, or developments in
social structure, anthropologists must rely on models that
reflect changes through time, so this diachronic orientation
suffuses the text.
FOUR UNIFYING THEMES
OF THIS TEXT
Four unifying themes structure the material presented in this
textbook. The first two themes we introduce students to are
the diversity of human societies and the similarities that make
all humans fundamentally alike. We examine commonalities
in human physical and cultural characteristics, as well as the
local contexts and conditions that have shaped human origins
and cultures. We emphasize the growing interconnectedness
of humanity and both the positive and negative consequences
of this reality. We draw on anthropological studies to discover
how people are responding to the omnipresent processes of
globalization.
Our third theme deals with the unique intersection of the
sciences and humanities within anthropology. We call this the
synthetic-complementary approach, which views the scientific
method and the methods in the humanities as complemen-
tary and suggests that one is incomplete without the other.
Decades ago, in another anthropology textbook, the late Eric
Wolf emphasized that anthropology has always had one foot
in the sciences and one foot in the humanities. This observa-
tion is evermore true today. Wolf (1964, 88) said, “Anthropol-
ogy is both the most scientific of the humanities and the most
humanistic of the sciences.” We carry on the tradition that he
accentuated in his work.
One of the prime goals in this edition is to further highlight
the fundamental importance of the synthetic-complementary
approach to science and the humanities in anthropology.
Some anthropologists have argued that the scientific
approach is not suitable for assessing and interpreting human
behavior and culture, whereas others believe that the human-
istic approach is not appropriate for developing general cross-
cultural and causal explanations about human behavior and
culture. This has led to textbooks that focus on either one
or the other approach. In this book, we highlight how the
humanistic-interpretive perspective provides insight into the
specifics of human behavior within different cultures, while
the scientific approach offers the means to systematically test
causal explanations that allow for insight into universal aspects
of human origins and behavior.
The fourth theme we draw on is emphasized in a new
Critical Perspectives box in Chapter 1 on essentialism. We
explain the meaning of psychological essentialism: the flawed
beliefs that members of certain categories or classifications

17. Preface xix
such as “species,” “races,” “ethnic groups,” “genders,” or “cul-
tures” share an underlying invisible essence. Extensive psy-
chological and anthropological research has demonstrated
that psychological essentialism appears to be universal and
is prevalent in human cognition and thinking throughout
the world. One of the missions of anthropology and this
textbook is to counter pervasive and often horribly miscon-
strued essentialist beliefs regarding ethnic or “racial” groups,
cultures, civilizations, societies, and religions. Anthropolo-
gists have revealed enormous variation within these sup-
posed categories. Essentialist thinking has resulted in many
widespread simplistic misconceptions and distorted percep-
tions. In different sections of the textbook, we illustrate
essentialist perceptions, and use anthropological research to
demonstrate the problems of such facile generalizations and
essentialist beliefs.
FEATURES OF THIS TEXT
Boxes
Critical Perspectives boxes are designed to stimulate indepen-
dent reasoning and judgment. Students take on the roles of
anthropologists and engage in the critical analysis of specific
problems that arise in anthropological research. A successful
holdover from the first edition, these boxes push students to
think about the rigorous standards of evidence needed to eval-
uate scientific and philosophical questions that often have no
easy answers. We have updated our discussions in the Criti-
cal Perspectives boxes for this edition. By probing beneath the
surface of various assumptions and hypotheses in these exer-
cises, students stand to discover the excitement and challenge
of anthropological investigation.
Anthropologists at Work boxes, profiling promi-
nent anthropologists, humanize many of the issues cov-
ered in the chapters. These boxes—another carryover from
the first edition—go behind the scenes to trace the per-
sonal and professional development of some of the field’s
leading anthropologists.
Pedagogical Aids
In this textbook, we provide some key teaching and learn-
ing aids. Each chapter opens with Learning Objectives that
guide students to the most important issues addressed in the
chapter. And each chapter ends with a Summary and Review
of Learning Objectives, which helps the students better com-
prehend the content in the chapter. In addition, each chap-
ter has a list of Key Terms with page numbers that helps the
students focus on the important concepts introduced in the
chapter. The Key Terms are also found with succinct defini-
tions in the Glossary.
DIGITAL RESOURCES
SAGE Edge
Apassword-protectedresourcesiteisavailableatedge.sagepub.com/
scupin9e, which supports teaching, providing high-quality content
to create a rich learning environment for students.The SAGE Edge
for this book includes the following instructor resources:
—
— Test banks built on Bloom’s Taxonomy provide a
diverse range of test items
—
— Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint slides offer
flexibility for creating a multimedia presentation
for lectures
—
— Lecture notes align with the PowerPoint slides to
summarize key concepts and help with preparation
for lectures and class discussion
—
— Carefully selected video and multimedia content
enhance exploration of key topics
—
— Chapter-specific discussion questions help launch
engaging classroom interaction while reinforcing
important content
—
— Sample Course syllabi provide suggested models for
structuring your course
—
— Tables and figures from the book are available
for download
—
— SAGE Coursepacks provide easy LMS integration
SAGE Edge for students
The open-access companion website helps students accomplish
their coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment,
featuring:
—
— Learning objectives reinforce the most
important material
—
— eQuizzes encourage self-guided assessment and practice
—
— eFlashcards that strengthen understanding of key
terms and concepts.
—
— Chapter-specific video and multimedia content
enhance exploration of key topics
SAGE Coursepacks
SAGE Coursepacks make it easy to import our quality instruc-
tor and student resource content into your school’s learning

18. xx Anthropology
management system (LMS) with minimal effort. Intuitive and
simple to use, SAGE Coursepacks gives you the control to cus-
tomize course content to meet your students’ needs. The SAGE
Coursepacks are customized and curated for use in Blackboard,
Canvas, Desire2Learn (D2L), and Moodel.
In addition to the content available on the Edge site, the
coursepacks include:
—
— Pedagogically robust assessment tools that foster
review, practice, and critical thinking:
—
c Chapter tests identify opportunities for student
improvement, track student progress, and ensure
mastery of key learning objectives.
—
c Instructions on how to use and integrate the
comprehensive assessments and resources provided.
—
— Assignable video tied to learning objectives with
corresponding assessments bring concepts to life to
increase student engagement
—
— Integrated links to the eBook version that make it easy
to access the mobile-friendly version of the text, which
can be read anywhere, anytime.
What’s New to This Edition
—
— The discussion of the volume’s key themes, drawn on
in previous editions, has been revised and expanded,
and we have added essentialism as a fourth theme.
Essentialism is explored in several parts of the text and is
the focus of a new Critical Perspectives box in Chapter 1.
—
— The book has a dramatic new look: Many new photos
and figures have been added, and others have been
deleted or modified to better illustrate key points in
the text.
—
— New Anthropologists at Work boxes illustrate current
research directions of an archaeologist who explores
both the past and the present in Mesomerica and a
linguistic anthropologist who is assisting people in
Papua New Guinea in preserving and developing
their native language. We also have Anthropologists
at Work boxes dealing with cultural anthropologists
who are exploring topics such as psychiatric
treatments, the psychology of religion, and how
adolescents use YouTube. Other boxes tell the stories
of anthropologists who are applying their skills in jobs
outside of academia in fields such as space travel, the
high-tech industry, and the global financial world.
—
— Chapter 2 on the record of the past has new or
expanded sections dealing with some of the current
field methods used in archaeological research, such
as geophysical surveys, satellite imagery, LIDAR,
and GIS.
—
— The Chapter 2 figures illustrating archaeological
dating concepts have been newly revised.
—
— Chapter 3 on evolution has been slightly shortened,
some of the more detailed discussions of evolutionary
theory have been trimmed, and the number of key
terms has been reduced to better underscore core
concepts and make the discussion more appropriate
for a four-field text.
—
— The reviews of recent fossil and archaeological evidence
in the Chapter 5 discussion of hominin evolution and
in the Chapter 7 discussion of the Paleolithic have
been considerably revised and updated, to incorporate
an array of new findings and studies. The Chapter
5 discussion on hominin phylogeny has also been
substantially tightened to underscore key points and
make the discussion easier to follow.
—
— New sections of Australopithecus sediba, Homo
floresiensis (the “Hobbit”), and Homo naledi have been
added in Chapter 5.
—
— Sections on the evolution of anatomically modern
humans, the Neandertals, and the Denisova hominins
have been significantly revised and updated.
—
— The discussion of hominin phylogeny in Chapter 5
benefits from a new, updated illustration program
that incorporates new finds and interpretations.
—
— Sections dealing with the increasing role of genomic
data in the interpretation of hominin evolution and
modern human origins have been added throughout.
—
— New updated and expanded discussions of
anthropological research on color perception in
various societies.
—
— New discussions and developments of the
anthropological research on enculturation and
emotions.
—
— New discussion of twenty-first-century “cultural
evolution theories”: dual-inheritance models and
cultural attraction theory.
—
— New discussions of anthropological research on
inequality and debt for economic anthropology.
—
— New discussion of life history projects in South
America by various anthropologists.
—
— A new chapter on gender and sexuality that explores the
complexities of topics such as transgender and LGBTQ
issues in various societies throughout the world.

19. —
— New discussions of political power, kingships,
and warfare as understood by recent research in
anthropology.
—
— New discussion of extreme “high-arousal rituals”
by Dimitris Xygalatas in the religion and
aesthetics chapter.
—
— New discussion of shamanism and examples among
the Ju/’hoansi and the Inuit.
—
— New discussion of anthropological explanations of
human sacrifice rituals in agricultural states.
—
— New discussion of the Human Generosity Project as
established by Lee Cronk.
—
— New discussions of the recent impact and reactions to
globalization by indigenous communities.
—
— New condensed chapter on globalization, colonialism,
and postcolonialism.
—
— New discussion of research on essentialism as it is
related to “race” classification.
—
— New discussion of anthropological contributions
to genomic research in Mexico in the ethnicity
chapter.
—
— New discussion of the roles of applied anthropologists
in their various activities.
—
— New discussion of ethnomedicine in Africa in the
applied anthropology chapter.
—
— New discussion of how anthropologists are
actively doing research on the impact of climate
change on various societies throughout
the world.
—
— New discussion of recent applied archaeology
and developments in garbology.
—
— In addition to the changes described above, we
have expanded and updated many other sections
of the textbook, paying close attention to the
readability and coherence of the content for the
undergraduate student.
Preface xxi

20. xxii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A
textbook like this one requires the enormous effort of
many people. First, we would like to offer thanks to
our colleague, Christina Pomianek, a faculty member
at Lindenwood University. She provided in-depth and help-
ful comments for various sections of this textbook. We would
also like to thank the following reviewers for their valuable
comments on the various editions of this textbook: Susan
Abbott-Jamieson, University of Kentucky; Kelly D. Alley,
Auburn University; Hoyt Alverson, Dartmouth College;
Barbara Gallatin Anderson, Southern Methodist Univer-
sity; Robert Bee, University of Connecticut; Harumi Befu,
Stanford University; John E. Blank, Cleveland State Univer-
sity; Barry Bogin, University of Michigan–Dearborn; Donald
E. Brown, University of California–Santa Barbara; Susan
Brownell, University of Missouri–St. Louis; Tom Brutsaert,
Syracuse University; Robert Carmack, State University of New
York–Albany; A. H. Peter Castro, Syracuse University; Miriam
S. Chaiken, New Mexico State University; Gail W. Cromack,
Onondaga Community College; James Duvall, Contra Costa
College; Allen S. Ehrlich, Eastern Michigan University; Dale
Eickelman, Dartmouth College; Adam D. Frank, University
of Central Arkansas; Michele Ruth Gamburd, Portland State
University; Josef Gamper, Monterey Peninsula College; Alan
Goodman, Hampshire College; Leonard Greenfield, Temple
University; Joan Gross, Oregon State University; Raymond
Hames, University of Nebraska; W. Penn Handwerker,
Humboldt State University; Richard D. Harris, University
of Portland; Robert W. Hefner, Boston University; Lawrence
A. Hirschfield, New School for Social Research; Robert
Hitchcock, University of New Mexico; Benita J. Howell,
University of Tennessee–Knoxville; Arian Ishaya, DeAnza
Community College; Howard Kress, University of Connecti-
cut; Norris Johnson, University of North Carolina–Chapel
Hill; Rita S. Kipp, Kenyon College; Nancy B. Leis, Central
Michigan University; William Leons, University of Toledo;
James Lett, Indian River Community College; Kenneth E.
Lewis, Michigan State University; Scott Madry, University of
North Carolina–Chapel Hill; Ester Maring, Southern Illinois
University–Carbondale; Ann P. McElroy, State University of
New York–Buffalo; Robert R. McIrvin, University of North
Carolina–Greensboro; Nancy P. McKee, Washington State
University; Barry H. Michie, Kansas State University; David
Minderhout, Bloomsburg University; Katherine Moore,
Bentley College; Robert Moorman, Miami-Dade Community
College–North; Henry Munson, University of Maine; James
Myers, California State University–Chico; Tim O’Meara,
World Bank Pacific Islands; Thomas O’Toole, St. Cloud
State University; John W. Page, Kirkland, Washington; Curt
Peterson, Elgin Community College; Leonard Plotnicov,
University of Pittsburgh; Paul (Jim) Roscoe, University of
Maine; James L. Ross, University of Akron; Susan D. Russell,
Northern Illinois University; L. Schell, State University of
New York–Albany; Edwin S. Segal, University of Louisville;
Paul Shankman, University of Colorado–Boulder; David H.
Spain, University of Washington; John Townsend, Syracuse
University; Robert B. Townsend, College of Lake County;
Trudy Turner, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Stephen
A. Tyler, Rice University; Virginia J. Vitzthum, Univer-
sity of California–Riverside; Alaka Wali, University of
Maryland; William Wedenoja, Southwest Missouri State
University; Melford S. Weiss, California State University–
Sacramento; Ronald K. Wetherington, Southern Methodist
University; Aubrey Williams, University of Maryland; Pamela
Willoughby, University of Alberta; Dimitris Xygalatas,
University of Connecticut–Storrs; and Larry Zimmerman,
University of South Dakota.
For this ninth edition, we would like to thank Anna Bellisari,
Wright State University; Andrew Kramer, University of Tennes-
see; Daniel J. Wescott, University of Missouri; Bruce P. Wheatley,
University of Alabama–Birmingham; and Robert R. Paine,Texas
Tech University. We also extend thanks to all colleagues who sent
us photos and information for use in the biography boxes. We
are grateful for the unwavering support given to this project by
SAGE Publications, including the support and encouragement
of our acquisitions editor Joshua Perigo, development editor
Alissa Nance, editorial assistant Noelle Cumberbatch, produc-
tion editor Bennie Clark Allen, copy editor Melinda Masson,
and Jade Henderson in marketing.
Our warmest appreciation goes to our families, whose
emotional support and patience throughout the publication
of the nine editions of this text truly made this book possible.
Anyone with comments, suggestions, or recommendations
regarding this textbook is welcome to send email messages to
the following addresses: rscupin@lindenwood.edu or crde-
cors@maxwell.syr.edu.
Christopher R. DeCorse
Raymond Scupin

21. SAGE would like to thank the following reviewers:
Jessica Amato, Napa Valley College
Rucha Ambikar, Bemidji State University
Lindsay Anderson, The University of Tennessee at Martin
Margaret Bruchez, Blinn College
Steve Dasovich, Lindenwood University
Holly DeLeo, Rowan College at Burlington County
Robert K. Hitchcock, University of New Mexico
Frank Hutchins, Bellarmine University
Jacquelyn Kyle, Rowan College at Burlington County
Mohsen M. Mobasher, University of Houston - Downtown
Juliet E. Morrow, Arkansas State University
John A. Napora, University of South Florida
Christina Pomianek, Lindenwood University
Paul Roach, Century College
Paul Roscoe, University of Maine
William Silcott, Friends University
Jesse Todd, Brookhaven College
Deborah Tooker, Le Moyne College
Lillian Marie Wallace, Pima Community College
Linda K. Watts, University of Colorado - Colorado Springs
Derrick Willis, College of DuPage
Dimitris Xygalatas, University of Connecticut
Acknowledgments xxiii

22. xxiv
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Raymond Scupin is a professor of anthropology and inter-
national studies at Lindenwood University. He received his
BA degree in history, Asian studies, and anthropology from
the University of California–Los Angeles. He completed his
MA and PhD degrees in anthropology at the University of
California–Santa Barbara. Dr. Scupin is truly a four-field
anthropologist. During graduate school, he did archaeologi-
cal and ethnohistorical research on Native Americans in the
Santa Barbara region. He did extensive ethnographic field-
work in Thailand with a focus on understanding the ethnic
and religious movements among the Muslim minority. In
addition, Dr. Scupin taught linguistics and conducted lin-
guistic research while based at a Thai university.
Dr. Scupin has been teaching undergraduate and gradu-
ate courses in anthropology for more than thirty years at
a variety of academic institutions, including community
colleges, research universities, and a four-year liberal arts
university. Thus, he has taught a very broad spectrum of
undergraduate students. Through his teaching experience,
Dr. Scupin was prompted to write this textbook, which
would allow a wide range of undergraduate students to
understand the holistic and global perspectives of the
four-field approach in anthropology. In 1999, he received
the Missouri Governor’s Award for Teaching Excellence.
In 2007, Dr. Scupin received the Distinguished Scholars
Award at Lindenwood University.
Dr. Scupin has published many essays, book chapters, and
review essays based on his ethnographic research in Thailand.
He returned to Thailand and other countries of Southeast Asia
to update his ethnographic data on Islamic trends in that area,
an increasingly important topic in the post-9/11 world. He
is a member of many professional associations, including the
American Anthropological Association, the Association for
Asian Studies, and the Council on Thai Studies. Dr. Scupin
has authored Religion and Culture: An Anthropological Focus,
Race and Ethnicity: The United States and the World, and Peoples
and Cultures of Asia.
Christopher R. DeCorse is a professor and past chair of the
Department of Anthropology in the Maxwell School of Citi-
zenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University. He received
his BA in anthropology with a minor in history from the
University of New Hampshire, before completing his MA and
PhD degrees in archaeology at the University of California–
Los Angeles. His research interests include African archaeology
and history, general anthropology, and archaeology in popu-
lar culture. Dr. DeCorse has excavated a variety of prehistoric
and historic period sites in the United States, the Caribbean,
and Africa, but his primary area of research has been in the
archaeology, history, and ethnography of Africa. Dr. DeCorse
has taught archaeology and general anthropology in under-
graduate and graduate programs at the University of Ghana,
Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Syracuse University.
His academic honors and awards include the Daniel Patrick
Moynihan Award for Outstanding Teaching, Research, and
Service; the William Wasserstrom Award for Excellence in
Graduate Teaching; and the Syracuse University Excellence in
Graduate Education Faculty Recognition Award.
Dr. DeCorse is particularly interested in making
archaeology more accessible to general audiences. In addition
to the single-authored physical anthropology and archae-
ology textbook The Record of the Past: An Introduction to
Physical Anthropology and Archaeology, he coauthored, with
Brian Fagan, the eleventh edition of In the Beginning: An
Introduction to Archaeology. He is currently completing a book
examining the presentation of archaeologists and archaeology
in popular culture.
Dr. DeCorse’s academic publications include more than
sixty articles, book chapters, and research notes in a variety of
publications, including the African Archaeological Review, His-
torical New Hampshire, Historical Archaeology, the Journal of
African Archaeology, and Slavery and Abolition. Volumes on his
research in Africa include An Archaeology of Elmina: Africans
and Europeans on the Gold Coast 1400–1900 (Smithsonian
Institution Press, 2001) and the edited volume, West Africa
During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives
(Bloomsbury, 2016). His most recent books are edited volumes
that deal with Europe’s entanglements with the non-Western
World: Power, Political Economy, and Historical Landscapes of
the Modern World: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Fernand Brau-
del Center Studies in Historical Social Science, SUNY Press,
2019) and British Forts and Their Communities: Archaeological
and Historical Perspectives, with Zachary J. M. Beier (University
Press of Florida, 2018).