00:00
00:33
Hybridization, as related to genomics, is the process in which two complementary single-stranded DNA and/or RNA molecules bond together to form a double-stranded molecule. The bonding is dependent on the appropriate base-pairing across the two single-stranded molecules. Hybridization is an important process in various research and clinical laboratory techniques. Hybridization. DNA is usually found as a double-stranded molecule. The two strands bind to one another in a complementary fashion by a process called hybridization. Naturally, when DNA is replicated, the new strand hybridizes to the old strand. In the laboratory, we can make small pieces of DNA, designed to screen for the presence or absence of certain DNA or RNA molecules in the cell. It also plays an important role in a procedure called polymerase chain reaction, known as PCR, where we amplify specific regions of the gene, and this is used in clinical testing.
1. HYBRIDIZATION
HYBRIDIZATION
HYBRIDIZATION
The term hybrid emanates from Latin hybrida,
used for crosses such as a tame sow and a wild
boar.
The term came into widespread use in English in
the 19th century, though examples of its use have
been found from the early 17th century.
Word origin:
2. What is Hybridisation?
Hybridization is the process of amalgamating
two complementary single-stranded DNA or RNA
molecules and forming a single double-stranded
molecule through base pairing. In reversing this
process, a double-stranded DNA (or RNA, or
DNA/RNA) molecule can be warmed to split the
base pairing and divide the two strands.
Hybridization is a part of many fundamental
laboratory techniques such as polymerase chain
reaction and Southern blotting.
3. The detection of a wide variety of virulent agents
The demonstration of human chromosomal aberrations
The detection of many genes accountable for inherited
diseases
The illustration of gene rearrangement and oncogene
amplification in many tumors.
Hybridization increases crop varieties in yield, disease
resistance, pest resistance, and so on.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
USES OF HYBRIDIZATION:
5. HYBRIDIZATION IN ANIMALS
The liger is a hybrid progeny of a
male lion and a female tiger. The
liger has parents in the same genus
but of different species. The liger is
different from the tigon hybrid and
is the largest of all known extant
felines. It can run up to 50 mph (80
km). Ligers don't occur in the wild
because tigers are mainly found in
Asia while lions are primarily in
Africa.
THE
LIGER
A mule is the progeny of a male
donkey and a female horse.
Horses and donkeys are different
species, with varying numbers of
chromosomes. Of the two first-
generation hybrids between
these two species, a mule is
handier to obtain than a hinny,
the offspring of a female donkey
and a male horse.
THE
MULE
6. A hinny is a household equine
hybrid that offspring a male horse
and a female donkey. It is the
typical cross to the more
common mule, which is the
product of a male donkey and a
female horse. Due to genomic
imprinting, the hinny is
uncommon from the mule both in
physiology and temperament.
Hinnies are more donkey-like, in
part because donkeys raise them.
the hinny
A grizzly–polar bear hybrid is a
rare ursid hybrid that has
occurred both in captivity and
the wild. In 2006, the
occurrence of this hybrid in
nature was verified by testing
the DNA of a unique-looking
bear that had been hit near
Sachs Harbour, Northwest
Territories on Banks Island in
the Canadian Arctic.
the Pizzly
7. Triticale is a hybrid of wheat and
rye first bred in laboratories
during the late 19th century in
Scotland and Germany.
Commercially known triticale is
nearly always a second-
generation hybrid, i.e., a cross
between two kinds of primary
triticales. Their average height is
of 30-40".
Triticale
Hybridisation in plants
The pomato is a grafted plant
produced by grafting together a
tomato plant and a potato
plant, which are members of the
Solanum genus in the
Solanaceae family. Cherry
tomatoes cultivate on the vine,
while white potatoes grow in the
soil from the exact plant.
pomato
8. The atemoya is the hybrid of
two fruits – the sugar apple
and the cherimoya .it was first
made in 1908 by P.J.Wester. It is
a premium quality fruit. It is an
effective Israeli cultivar and is
the best variety under Florida
prerequisites.
atemoya
Rangpur, Citrus × limonia, or Citrus
reticulata × medica, sometimes
called the rangpur lime, mandarin
lime, or lemandarin, is a hybrid
between the mandarin orange and
the citron. It is a citrus fruit with a
sour taste and an orange peel and
flesh. It has been created in the
Indian subcontinent and has
nothing to do with limes. It's bright
orange, about the size of a
clementine, and a cross between a
lemon and mandarin, making it
effortlessly peeled and segmented.
Rangpur
9. Human evolution is extensively
studied about hybridization as it
played a significant role in our
survival on very mother earth.
in human development, we
specifically learn three major
headings:
a. Earlier to the ape man
b. Ape men, including prehistoric
people
c. True men including the modern
man
Human evolution and
Hybridization
10. earlier to the ape man
Dryopithecus: it was discovered from Miocene rocks of Africa and
Europe. It lived about 15 million years ago. It was ape-like but had
arms and legs of the same length. Dryopithecus africanus is
regarded as a common ancestor of man and apes, also called
proconsul.
Sivapithecus: found from middle to late Pliocene rocks of Shivalik
hill of India. It has four limbs, skulls, and brains like monkeys' while
the face, jaws, and teeth resembled apes'.
Ramapithecus: In the late Miocene epoch, Dryopithecus gave rise
to Ramapithecus and was on a direct line of human evolution. It
has survived from the late Miocene to Pliocene. Thus, he appeared
about 14-15 million years ago.
1.
2.
3.
11. ape man, including prehistoric
people
Australopithecus: early human stock gave rise to Australopithecus and was
connecting link between apes and man. Raymond Dart(1924) discovered the
fossil from Pliocene rocks near Tuang in Africa. Shreds of evidence show
that they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruits.
Homo habilis: The toolmaker or the handyman is also known as an able or
skilful man. The first human-like hominid was homo habilis and likely did not
eat meat. they were about 1.2 to 1.5 metres tall, had bipedal locomotion,
and erect posture. It had about 650-800 cranial capacity. It had also led
community lives in caves and exceptionally cared for young ones.
Homo Erectus: appeared about 1.5 million years ago, in the middle
Pleistocene. They presumably ate meat and were called middle Pleistocene
men. They evolved from homo habilis and had erect postures. The cranial
capacity was 900 cc hence cranium domed to adapt to the large brain. They
made more elaborate tools, hunted and perhaps used the fire.
1.
2.
3.
12. True man including modern man
Neanderthal man: fossils of Neanderthal man were first obtained from Neander
valley, which is from the late Pleistocene epoch. He had a slightly prognathous
face and walked upright like us. Their cranial capacity was 1300-1600 cc. They
were legendary cave dwellers, having heavy eyebrows and humped back. They
were not only skilled hunters but actual predators never seen before. It is
believed that they had burial ceremonies and had a religion.
Cro magnon man emerged about 34000 years ago in the Holocene epoch. Thus, he
was regarded as the most recent ancestor of today's man. They were more like
us, had a well-built body, high nose, broad and arched forehead, strong jaws,
moderate eyebrows, and a well-developed chin. Their cranial capacity was
somewhat of 1650 cc like us. They live in families, use tools and skin clothes.
They also made paintings on cave walls about 18000 years ago.
The modern man: homo sapiens sapiens appeared about 25000 years ago in the
Holocene epoch and distributed worldwide about 10000 years ago. Agriculture
came around 10000 years back, and human settlements started. The modern man
underwent palaeolithic, mesolithic, neolithic and bronze ages followed by the iron
age.
1.
2.
3.
13. Gene editing is the
process of tiny
controlled change
in the DNA of living
beings to produce
GMOs through
hybridization.
It gave scientists a chance to
hybridize an organism.
Enhance yield, quality, and
nutritional value to introduce or
improve plant tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses.
Make organisms more viable for
better evolution
Gene editing in hybridization
15. To create genetically altered crops
and animals, scientists generally
remove the preferred gene from
one organism and randomly
introduce it. A well-known
genetically modified crop is Bt corn
and cotton. A bacterial gene was
introduced that delivers
insecticidal toxins into the part of
the plant where the insect eats,
causing death to the insect.
bt cotton
16. Deduction
In simple terms, gene editing is a minor, controlled tweak to a living
organism’s existing DNA versus introducing a new, foreign gene. It is nearly
impossible to notice whether an organism’s DNA has been edited or not
because the transformations are indistinguishable from naturally arising
mutations.
In connection with gene editing, you will usually hear the term CRISPR
(Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat). CRISPR is a
standard method, or tool, of gene editing. The science behind it is detailed and
complex, but it is a naturally occurring enzyme in bacteria that allows
scientists to edit DNA precisely.
There are many pros to gene editing. Its editing is less expensive, more
comfortable to use, and more precise than genetic modification. It creates
possibilities by allowing the technology to expand to new startup
biotechnology firms and visionary scientists outside of the classic
multinational corporations that monopolise genetically modified crops.
17. Factors Affecting
Hybridization
Temperature: the strands melt if the temperature is too
high; also, they might be forced together if it's too low.
The pH: An alkaline pH will cause the strands to separate;
they are too acidic and forced together.
The guanine to cytosine ratio (G: C ratio): Since this bond is stronger
than the other nucleotide bonds, if the G: C ratio in the desired target
strand is high, the separation process may take longer or require
higher energy (temperature).
Salt concentration in the hybridization buffer
1.
2.
3.
4.
18. Barriers to Hybridization
Ecological isolation: Two species live in different habitats
and do not meet.
Temporal isolation: Breeding seasons or flowering time
may differ between the two species.
Behavioral isolation: The males of one animal species
cannot recognize the females of another species as
potential mates.
Mechanical isolation: The structural differences in
genitalia of individuals belonging to different animal
species interfere with mating.
Gametic isolation: The sperms and ova of different species
of animals are unable to fuse.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
19. In mythology
Folk tales and myths sometimes include mythological hybrids;
the Minotaur was the offspring of a human, Pasiphaë, and a
white bull. More often, they are composites of the physical
qualities of two or more kinds of animals, mythical beasts,
and humans, with no indication that they are the result of
interbreeding, as in the centaur (man/horse), chimaera
(goat/lion/snake), hippocamp (fish/horse), and sphinx
(woman/lion). The Old Testament cites the first age of half-
human hybrid goliaths, the Nephilim. At the same time, the
apocryphal Book of Enoch defines the Nephilim as the vicious
sons of fallen angels and attractive women.
