Eight Primate Research

Eight Primate Research
Darwin once hypothesized that humans evolved from an ape like ancestor and that those ancestors
most likely originated in Africa since the majority of the great apes lived there. Unfortunately,
Darwin's hypothesis was ignored for reasons such as people (e.g. Europeans) not liking of having
African ancestors–not to mention the lack of evidence did not help in supporting such hypothesis.
Thus, finding the missing link between apes and humans was of great important–it still is.
Thankfully, through extensive research many scientists have been able to determine a clade called
Hominin [7]. This clade contains humans as well as their most closely related relatives. Moreover,
Hominin was derived from morphological, molecular and some genetic data ... Show more content
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Mitochondrial 16s rRNA was used since copies of these genes are found in both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic organisms–these genes also evolve very slowly. MtDNA control region was used since
it is a non–coding DNA region and is more variable in the human mitochondrial genome. Although
variable, mtDNA control region does show a highly conserved secondary structure which is thought
to be under highly stabilizing selection. In mammals, specially, mtDNA has evolved at a more
uniform rate
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Dinoflagellates Research Paper
Dinoflagellates are eukaryotic microorganisms that are commonly found in marine environments.
They are a large group of flagellate protists that are also identified as algae. Most dinoflagellates
possess plastids, a double membrane organelle that stores pigments used in photosynthesis [1, 2].
However, some dinoflagellates only acquire these temporarily by digesting food algae [1]. A large
portion of dinoflagellates are mixotrophic, phagotrophy with photosynthesis [3]. There are roughly
2,000 species of dinoflagellates living and more than 1,700 of them live in marine environments [4].
Dinoflagellates possess two flagella that produce forward movement and also provide a turning
ability [5]. Another unique characteristic of dinoflagellates is the ability to bioluminesce. In total, 68
species are bioluminescent and emit a blue–green light due to the stimulation of the enzyme
dinoflagellate luciferase [6, 7]. Although there are many defining characteristics of dinoflagellates,
there is still confusion as to whether they should be identified as algae or protists.
Protists are mostly unicellular and can be heterotrophic or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
There are too many variations in pigmentation, metabolism, and morphology to group all
dinoflagellates together. In an effort to gain a better understanding of where they belong
evolutionarily, researchers have begun using the nuclear–encoded large subunit ribosomal RNA
gene (LSU rDNA) for phylogenetic analysis. It contains conserved and divergent sequences [19].
The accumulation of LSU rDNA information can aid in identifying dinoflagellates at a species level
and can track the dispersal of other marine microorganisms [16].It has also been proposed that the
dinoflagellate lineage is linked to the endosymbiosis of a chromist haptophyte algae that contained
chlorophyll a and c

Dna Sequences Using Polymerase Chain Reaction
Amplification of 16S Ribosomal DNA Sequences using Polymerase Chain Reaction
Edwina Abou Haidar,
Houssam Al Koussa,
Mary AbedAlAhad.
Department of Biology, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
Abstract The 16s rRNA gene sequencing is a widely common amplicon sequencing method used to
identify and compare bacteria in a given sample. This method is well established and allows to study
phylogeny and taxonomy of complex microbiomes. In this study, an unknown sample of extracted
microbial DNA was analyzed by performing the polymerase chain reaction followed by agarose gel
electrophoresis. The results were accurate since three distinct bands (1500 basepairs) corresponded
to our sample (duplicates) and the positive control. This indicates clearly the amplification of the
16s rRNA gene whose further sequencing technique constitutes a pivotal tool in the accurate
identification of bacterial isolates as well as the discovery of novel bacteria in clinical microbiology
laboratories.
Abbreviations
rDNA: ribosomal DNA rRNA: ribosomal RNA bp: base pair
PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction Introduction Physiological and biochemical tests constituting the
basis of conventional differentiation between bacterial species are somehow cumbersome, consume
a lot of time and require different approaches [1]. Furthermore, the commercial identification
systems failed to identify commonly encountered bacteria and uncommon isolates. In fact, these
commercial systems

Annotated Bibliography
Shivani Patel
BIO 398: Half–Credit Independent Research
Annotated Bibliography
1. Seaton, S.C., Elliott, K.T., Cuff, L.E., Laniohan, N.S., Patel, P.R., and Neidle, E.L. 2012.
"Genome‐wide selection for increased copy number in Acinetobacter baylyi ADP1: locus and
context‐dependent variation in gene amplification." Molecular microbiology. 83(3): 520–535.
Gene duplication and amplification is a process by which variation can be created and selected for.
By understanding gene duplication and amplification, scientists can glean insight on medical
conditions dealing with this genetic phenomenon. In this study, scientists use Acinetobacter baylyi
to understand the effects of gene duplication and amplification and the position of the amplified ...
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Instead, they argued in favor of the recombination dependent mutation theory. E.coli with a Lac–
mutation were found to revert back into Lac+ bacteria when grown in lactose and minimal media.
However, the mechanism was still unclear. Some scientists argued the lac region still had some
ability to catalyze lactose, and will be amplified until it can grow on lactose. On the other hand,
scientist at Indiana University state revertants are created through DNA error. Through three
experiments, scientist argued against the amplification dependent mutation theory. Transposons
were inserted at various distances from the lac region, and transformation frequency did not
decrease as the transposon and lac distance decreased. Amplification of the transposon and the lac
region should have occurred at the same frequency because they are close together on the plasmid.
Furthermore, tetA gene, another gene on the plasmid, was also selected in the experiment. Similarly,
the reversion of this gene was not tied to the reversion of the Lac– no matter the distance. Lastly, the
amplification theory states alleles must be cis to undergo amplification. However, scientists found
that reversion still occurs when the lac region is trans. Thus, these scientists debunk the
amplification dependent mutation theory in favor of the recombination dependent mutation

The Invention Of Phase Contrast Microscopy By The Nobel...
Abstract
In the last century with the invention of phase contrast microscopy by the Nobel Prize winner Frits
Zernike, nucleoli were among the most con–spicuous structures. The nucleolus was first de–scribed
between 1835 and 1839, but it had to go through another century before it was discovered to be
related with a specific chromosomal locus, which marked it as a cytogenetic entity.1
At the end of the 18th century, Montgomery was the first to publish the monumental monograph,
which included color figures of nuclei and nucleo–li.1
Based on the Montgomery work, further studies where conducted to analyze the function of the
nucleolus in the next century. In fact himself has studied nucleoli in the oocytes of over 175 differ–
ent species and had approached at three re–markable conclusions that still hold true today: 1) In one
cell there can be more than one nucleolus;
2) Cells with higher growth are presented with more and larger size;
3) The last conclusion was, the size of the cells interfere with the size of nucleolus.2
After the 1960 numerous discovers made a huge impact in the modern science, one of these is the
study on the rRNA which lead to the conclusion that the nucleolus is the site of ribosomal RNA
synthesis and nascent ribosome assembly.1
In the early 70s it was observed that the ribonu–cleoprotein precursors to ribosomes contain two
classes of protein. The difference between these proteins was thought to be that one class could be
recognized as ribosomal proteins,

Why The Word Metrosideros Is Derived From Two Greek Words
The word Metrosideros is derived from two Greek words –"metra" which means "core or heart", and
"sideron" which means "iron". Thus, Metrosideros species are referred to as iron–hearted trees
referring to the durability and hardness of their wood (Dawson & Stemmermann, 1990). The genus
Metrosideros belongs to the family Myrtaceae which consists of around 135 genera and more than
3000 species. A substantial number of species of this family are found in Australia and South
America while fewer species are found in Africa (Wilson, 1996). Metrosideros is a widely
distributed genus with representatives in the Philippines, New Guinea, New Caledonia, New
Zealand and many of the Pacific Islands but missing in Australia, Indonesia, or Micronesia (Wilson,
1996). One outgroup species, M.angustifolia, is also present in South Africa (Dawson, 1975). There
are about 53 species in genus Metrosideros across the Pacific ranging from the Philippine Islands to
New Zealand in the south and reaching to various volcanic Islands in the east including Hawaii
(Dawson & Stemmermann, 1990). New Zealand (with 12 spp.) and New Caledonia (with 16 spp.)
are considered to be centres of diversity for the genus. The New Zealand group includes six root
climbing vines (M. albiflora, M. carminea, M. colensoi, M. diffusa, M. fulgens, and M. perforata),
one shrub (M. parkinsonii) and five tree species (M. bartlettii, M. excelsa, M. kermadecensis, M.
robusta, and M. umbellata) (Dawson, 1988). New Zealand is

The Mechanisms Linking Ribosomal Translation And Pre Mrna...
Investigation of the mechanisms linking ribosomal translation and pre–mRNA processing in yeast
Nine–Month Report submitted by
Marija Petrić
ID: 1454106
Supervisor:
Dr Saverio Brogna
Contents
Contents
1. Introduction 3
1.1. Eukaryotic gene expression 3
1.2. Quality control of eukaryotic gene expression 5
1.3. Nonsense mediated mRNA decay 6
1.4. Factors involved in NMD 7
1.5. NMD models 17
1.6. Ribosome release model 21
1.7. Role of UPF1 in the nucleus 23
2. Objectives 25
3. Materials and methods 27
3.1. Schizosaccharomyces pombe strains 27
3.2. S. pombe media 27
3.3. S. pombe culturing and maintenance 27
3.4. PCR based gene targeting – one step PCR approach 28
3.5. PCR based gene targeting – two step PCR approach 30
3.5. Agarose gel electrophoresis and gel extraction 32
3.6. Transformation of S. pombe strains for PCR based gene targeting 32
3.7. Colony PCR 33
3.8. pDUAL expression vector 34
3.9. Polysome profile 36
3.9.1. Preparation of sucrose gradients 36
3.9.2. Cell lysis 36
3.9.3. Sedimentation of translation complexes 37
3.9.4. RNA and protein precipitation from polysomal fractions 38

3.10. SDS–PAGE and Western blot 39
4. Results 41
4.1. How does UPF1 bind its substrates? 41
4.1.1. Introduction 41
4.1.2. Results and discussion 43
4.2. What is the mechanism of NMD? 48
4.2.1. Optimisation of polysome profile analysis 48
4.2.2. Ribosome release model 49
1. Introduction
1.1. Eukaryotic gene expression Gene expression is the basic cellular process which converts

Reaction Paper On Alprazolam
ALPRAZOLAM
Alprazolam is used as an anxiolytic drug and it has nonspecific depressant effects on the central
nervous system. It's used orally. It's absorbed from gastrointestinal tact greater than 80%. Peak
plasma levels usually occur within 2 hours. Alprazolam has a high protein bound (80%). Serum
albumin accounts for the majority of the binding. It has a small volume of distribution (less than
1.5L/kg). Alprazolam and its metabolites are excreted primarily in the urine. The mean plasma
elimination half–life of alprazolam has been found to be about 11.2 hours in healthy adults.
Action mechanism of Alprazolam is binding to the benzodiazepine binding site on the chloride
channel of the gamma–aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA is an inhibitory ... Show more content on
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When the patient is using Gentamicin, renal and eighth cranial nerve function should be closely
monitored, especially in patients with known or suspected reduced renal function and also in those
patients whose renal function is initially normal but who develop signs of renal dysfunction during
therapy. Serum concentrations of Gentamicin should be monitored regularly to avoid potentially
toxic levels. The possibility of cumulative toxicity should be considered when gentamicin is applied
topically to big skin lesions or large areas of denuded

Bioleaching of Gold Ore
RESEARCH ART I C L E
Insights intothe dynamics of bacterial communities during chalcopyrite bioleaching
Zhiguo He1,2, Fengling Gao1,2, Jiancun Zhao1,2, Yuehua Hu1,2 & Guanzhou Qiu1,2
1School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China; and 2Key Laboratory of Biometallurgy, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
Correspondence: Zhiguo He, School of
Minerals Processing and Bioengineering,
Central South University, Changsha, Hunan
410083, China. Tel./fax: 186 731 88879815; e–mail: zhighe@gmail.com
Received 19 December 2009; revised 14 April
2010; accepted 17 June 2010.
Final version published online 3 August 2010.
DOI:10.1111/j.1574–6941.2010.00943.x
Editor: Alfons Stams ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Biological
4Fe3þ þ 2H2O
FEMS Microbiol Ecol 74 (2010) 155–164 c 2010 Federation of European Microbiological
Societies
Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved
MICROBIOLOGY ECOLOGY
Acid generation (reaction 4):
S0 þ 3=2O2 þ H2O !
Biological
2Hþ þ SO2
4
Acid generation (reaction 5):
3Fe3þ þ 2SO2
4 þ 6H2O þMþ2MFe3ðSO4Þ2ðOHÞ6 þ 6Hþ
Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) has been shown to detect differences in the melting
behavior of small
DNA fragments (200–700 bp) that differ by as little as a single base substitution. It is well
established that DGGE offers a rapid culture–independent method for detecting and identifying
predominant PCR–targeted populations (Casamayor et al.,
2000). DGGE is a powerful and convenient tool for a study such as the present one, which requires
sampling of several points and at different times. The objectives of this study were to determine the

full extent of microbial diversity of an acid mine drainage (AMD) sample from the Yunfu pyrite
mine, and determine as to which population members are the most successful chalcopyrite–
bioleaching strains. Firstly, we identified the complete phylogeny of an AMD sample from the
Yunfu sulfidemine by restriction fragment length polymorphism
(RFLP). Then, we monitored the changes in the diversity of microorganisms during the bioleaching
of chalcopyrite with biomass collected from the AMD

A Summary Of Gram-Negative Bacteria
Introduction
Every winter the snow falls, and people get sick. Both of these items have components in common.
Both the snow that falls, and the bacteria that gets people sick may be small, but when allowed to
accumulate, characteristics of them become visible. While snow is made from frozen water, with
flakes differentiating in the structure of them, bacteria is like that, to a sense. Certain bacteria
families may have similar genomes, they do have slight differences that make up what they are. Just
like snow being made of frozen water, bacteria is made up of the same four genomes. They're just in
a different order, which makes them unique
One way to tell the difference is to see if the bacteria is gram positive or gram negative. Gram–
Positive bacteria contains peptidoglycan (which is a polymer of amino acids and sugars), while
Gram–Negative Bacteria does not have as much. (Holbrook, 24)
Because Gram–Positive contain peptidoglycan, they do not form string in the KOH test. The
opposite is true for Gram–Negative– it will form a string due to its chemical makeup. The Gram–
Positive bacteria uses the peptidoglycan to act as a wall, so the KOH will not react with it. However,
the cell membrane on the Gram–Negative bacteria reacts with the KOH, which creates a slight polar
charge on the bacteria, which causes it to form a string. If too much force was added by pulling on
the toothpick, this causes the string to break. Therefore, when applying the KOH string test, one
must be

Intestinal Tract Microbiome
The importance of the intestinal tract microbiome in rheumatic illness was identified when the
existence of specific microbes was correlated with the reactive arthritis development. Studies
demonstrating that the presence of a specific resident bacterial DNA in synovial fluids of arthritic
patients, supported the notion that in hereditary susceptible humans exposure to degraded products
of the intestinal microbiome locally in synovium might cause inflammation. It is conceivable
infections Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, and Campylobacter can lead to arthritis, specifically, in
people who bring human leukocyte antigen–B27. This led to the presumption that the intestinal
microbial products may be existent in circulation as well as the synovial ... Show more content on
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The results found that the Prevotella copri abundance with Bacteroides absence in new onset
arthritis patients was differentiated. The interesting point in this study that the proportional
abundance of P. Corpi contrarily associated with the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles
presence that share the sequence of the third Hypervariable region is known shared epitope
proposing a change in the gut microbiome before the clinical phenotype appearance. It is clear that
the inflammatory reaction in rheumatoid arthritis starts considerably before the actual beginning of
the disease. These investigations combined with humanized murine propose that the MHC genes
play a fundamental role in the bacterial flora colonization in the gut and consequently indirectly
determining the pro–inflammatory conditions in the intestine. Additionally, the probability that RA
patients are taking drugs that can regulate their gut microbiome before being observed in a clinic, is

Bacteria in Recycling Wastewater
Bacteria are very important in the recycling of wastewater. These facultative bacteria have the
capability to thrive in or out of the presence of oxygen. They also help breakdown organic materials
that could be harmful to the environment. However too much bacteria in a wastewater plants could
create a big problem for wildlife and the ecosystem. This research will test the proliferation of
bacteria before and after heavy rain to see if the rainwater run–off from farms that use fertilizers,
and fish farms farm will create a spike in the reproduction of bacteria. Water samples will be taken
from the Flint Creek Watershed in 100 mL bottles before and after heavy rain and transported on ice
to the laboratory. The sites will be areas with heavy agricultural use and rural land use. This area
was chosen cause it has a total drainage area of 455m2 and over 1600 km of intermittent streams.
The predominant land use is agriculture/pasture and the geology consists of mostly Tuscumbian
Limestone. It originates in Cullman, AL and flows into 17 segments of impounded waters of
wheeler Reservoir on the Tennessee River. One of the segments, Flint Creek, which stretches for 6
km, which will be used for this study because of its designated uses for fish and wildlife, public
water supply, and limited warm water fishery. Introduction
Wastewater treatment facilities are a very important asset of many urban and rural areas. The
facilities process water contaminated with different types of

Gram-Positive Bacteria
Bacteria have many properties in that some are very harmful, pathogenic, and others are extremely
beneficial in many ways to humans and to all types of organisms. Some live within plants, fungi and
humans. An example in the human body is Lactobacillus Johnsonii which is a bacteria that helps
infants digest milk smoothly (it is found in the gut)( Anwar MA and others 2008). Every type of
bacteria is classified according to features that can be studied further for differing properties and
what separates each strain into different categories.
Shape, internal composition and respiration mode are three ways bacterium are classified.
Differences in internal composition varies by the amount, thickness, of peptidoglycan in bacteria
cell walls. Gram negative cells have a thin layer of peptidoglycan within the membrane layers,
whereas gram positive have a thick layer on the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to page 24 of the lab manual, Gram–positive bacteria are able to grow on a PEA medium
but not EMB–lactose (Holbrook Leicht, 2013). Therefore, further testing had to be done that
would identify the gram–positive or gram–negative state in the Catalase and Oxidase test. The result
of the KOH Test, also Table 1, as gram–positive, because the bacterium we tested did not form a
string. Because of the mixture of identities the Catalase test and Oxidase test were used (Figure 2).
These both resulted in a very strong gram–positive reaction. During the Catalase test, after placing a
drop of H2O2 on our slide, an immediate strong reaction of bubbles formed. This confirms our
specimen as catalase–positive bacteria. The Oxidase test showed strong reaction in the gram–
positive designated areas confirming, with the Catalase test, that the bacteria most likely is gram–
positive. This concludes the observational–based testing

Molecular And Phylogenetic Characterization Of Mercury...
Molecular and phylogenetic characterization of mercury reductase gene (merA) from newly isolated
Bacillus sp.
Introduction:
Continuous discharge of industrial waste results in the increase levels of metal ions, which are toxic
in nature. Among plethora of metals, mercury is found to be more toxic metals, whose metal ions are
readily released from industries and anthropogenic sources. Mercury is one of potent neurotoxin and
is also toxic to environment. The uncontrolled discharge of mercury as pollutant into water bodies
has arise the level of mercury from 20 to 100 times or even more from the permissible limit of it.
The contamination has affected the marine population at large but few of bacteria have found way
out to tolerate such high concentration of mercury. Such bacteria have been discovered way back in
1960's by Moore, where he reported to found an operon called as mercury operon or mer operon
which is found to be integrated on plasmid, transposons, etc., which harbors the efficiency to
withstand mercury contamination. Further various researches were made and it was found that mer
operon primarily have two genes called merA which encodes for mercury reductase enzyme which
breaks down inorganic form of mercury (Hg2+) to less toxic and volatile form of mercury (Hg0),
which is released in environment and the other gene called merB which acts on organic form of
mercury (CH3Hg+) to convert it into Hg2+.Thus two major mechanisms are found to be associated
with mercury

Escherichia Coli : An Ideal Model Organism
Title : Studies of Large RNAP
NusG
70S Transcription
Translation Linking Complex Author :
Dominique Gutierrez, Cristina Gutierrez
Vargas, and Dr. Joachim Frank Abstract Escherichia coli
(E.coli) is an ideal model organism. Many mechanisms found in E.coli are resembled in other
species. S10, a protein on the 30S subunit of the ribosome, is highly conserved and found in
pathogens, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus
pneumoniae. S10 has been shown to interact with NusG, a transcription elongation factor, linking
the translational machinery to that of transcription. The coupling ... Show more content on
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Introduction The relatively sudden rise in antibiotic resistance has resulted in the increasing
pathogenicity of bacterial infection entailing the utilization of novel and more universal mechanisms
in the development of new treatments. Both NusG and NusE/S10 are
highlyconservedandplayrolesintranscriptionandtranslation(Werner,2012).Sinceits identification as an
E.coli transcription elongation factor involved in N protein phage lambda transcriptional
antitermination in 1992 (Li J., et.al), N
utilization substance G, NusG a 20.5 kDa protein has been
suggested toactasadirectphysicallinkercoupling transcription and translation (Burmann et al., 2010).
Through NMR and biochemical assay studies Mooney (2009) found that NusG has two domains
connected by a flexible linker that distinctly makeupthecharacteristic functionalities of NusG. The
N
TerminalDomain,NTDcomposedof3alphahelicesand 4 beta strands that form an antiparallel sheet
has a hydrophobic pocket by which it interacts and binds to the β′ clamp helices of RNA
Polymerase, RNAP. Through this

Dna Rn The Biological Diversity
Christianah Sobukonla 11/25/14 DNA sequence and Dependent culture in Microbial Diversity
Biodiversity is also known as the biological diversity. Biodiversity refers to all kinds of organism
that can be found in a particular area.it includes a variety of plants, animals, fungi and other living
things. Biodiversity of an ecosystem, is a community of animals, plants, and living things in
relationship to their environment, which can be physical or chemical. Microbial diversity can be
defined as the different kinds of microorganism which includes bacteria, archaea, fungi, and protists.
The study of microorganism is important because they play a large role in thce environment.
Although microorganism are not well known, which might be due to their small size, and the
hardship of recognizing them. Particularly bacteria and other prokaryotic organisms. Only 3100
bacteria are recognized in Bergey's manual out of 300000 to 1000000 species of prokaryotes that is
on earth. Bacteria although mostly thought of has been harmful can also be useful. Some microbes
help in immune system regulation, digestion, and vitamin production. (7). They are also helpful in
some of the cycles that take place, like the nitrogen fixation, nitrification and nitrate reduction. They
control what the atmosphere is made of and also,

The Components and Functions of Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid,
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid, or rRNA, is the principle component of the ribosome and is crucial in
the development of proteins for living cells. Approximately 80–85% of a cell's total RNA is made up
of rRNA. The low molecular weight transfer RNA (tRNA), which aids in bringing amino acids to
the site of ribosomal translation, comprises only 15–20%. The remaining 1–5% is made up by
messenger RNA (mRNA), which is essentially the encoding blueprint for the synthesis of a given
protein.
Proteins are comprised of particularly assembled amino acid chains – the instructions for proper
sequencing of these chains are found within the cell's genome. Transcription of the DNA into RNA
is the first step towards protein production. This occurs in the nucleus of the cell and undergoes
RNA splicing to produce mRNA (Transcription, 2014). In addition to the removal of introns, mature
mRNA will also exhibit the addition of a 5' cap and a 3' poly(A)–tail. This cap provides resistance to
5' exonuclease activity and protects the mRNA from degradation on that end. The cap also serves as
an important binding site for ribosomes during translation, and aids the transport of mRNA through
the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm. Similar to the 5' cap, the poly(A)–tail also helps prevents
degradation of the mRNA and may help facilitate the movement of mRNA into the cytoplasm.
Translation of the newly synthesized mRNA occurs in the cytoplasm, through coordination of the
ribosome and other

The Pathogen Of Infectious Coryza Essay
Introduction
Avibacterium paragallinarum
Avibacterium paragallinarum, previously known as Haemophilus paragallinarum, is a pathogenic
bacteria that cause infectious coryza, an acute respiratory diseases that associate with substantial
losses in poultry industry worldwide (Blackall et al., 2005). Early descriptions believed the pathogen
of infectious coryza was Haemophilus gallinarum, which requires hemin and NADH as compulsory
growth factors. In 1960s, studies on bacteria isolates recovered from the infectious coryza cases
showed that the growth of all isolates were only NADH–dependent, leading to the identification of
the new species, Haemophilus paragallinarum (Blackall Soriano, 2008). In recent years, NADH–
independent H. paragallinarum strains have been reported from South Africa, Mexico and Peru
(Blackall, 1999; Soriano–Vargas et al., 2013; Falconi–Agapito et al., 2015), revealing the existence
of geographic influence on bacteria distribution.
H. paragallinarum belongs to the Pasteurellaceae family. Like some of the pathogens for avian
diseases, it has only been identified with chicken host. With the host–specificity character, the
Avibacterium genus was established within Pasteurellaceae family in 2005, including Avibacterium
gallinarum, Avibacterium paragallinarum, Avibacterium avium and Avibacterium volantium. 16S
ribosomal RNA analysis revealed that at least 96.8% sequence similarity was identified within this
genus. This genus was also separable from all taxa

Female Vaginal Microbiome
The female vaginal microbiome plays a pivotal role in the maintenance and protection of urogenital
health. The extent by which it is able to defend and protect against potentially pathogenic bacteria
and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is strongly associated with a high–relative abundance of
vaginal Lactobacillus spp. Lactobacillus spp. prevent colonization of potential pathogens through
the production of lactic acid, bacteriocins and biosurfactants. Conversely, depletion of vaginal
Lactobacillus spp. is associated with an increased abundance of anaerobic bacteria including
Gardnerella, Prevotella and Dialister spp., an increase in vaginal pH (4.5), and is strongly
correlated with the polymicrobial, pro–inflammatory vaginal disorder, ... Show more content on
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It is estimated that by age 50, at least 80% of all women will have been diagnosed with HPV at one
point in their lives (CDC). HPV is a viral infection which can be delineated into two categories
based upon oncogenic potential: low–risk HPV (LR–HPV) responsible for benign subcutaneous
warts, lesions, etc (cite) and high–risk HPV (hrHPV) which is the cause of HPV–related cancers.
Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in women world–wide and contributes to
______ deaths in the U.S per year (CDC). Persistent infection with HPV is necessary for the onset
of cervical cancer however, long latent periods of individuals with HPV suggests that HPV alone is
insufficient to induce cervical cancer (Fernandez, 1995). Recent studies have investigated the
association between the structural composition of the vaginal microbiota and HPV: in 2013, a study
of 68 HPV–discordant female korena twins showed that HPV–positive twins had lower levels of
Lactobacillus spp. and increased Fusobacteria and Sneathia spp. compared to HPV–negative tiwns.
Consistent with these finndings, analysis of vaginal swabs collected longitudinally for 16 weeks
from 32 sexually active women found that a Lactobacillus spp.–depleted, Atopobium spp. enriched
(CST IV) community structure is associated with slowest regression of HPV whereas a
Lactobacillus gasseri–dominated microbiome (CST II)

Plant Cells : Occasion Homework
Plant Cells: Occasion Homework. 9/4/16
Plants have numerous cells inside them. They all have distinctive part and capacities. Together they
all out to make the plant empower itself to survive. Inside a plant are its cells. Inside a cell are its
organelles. These organelles are called cell organelles which are little individual parts of a phone
which complete distinctive particular capacities. There are a vast variety of different
Golgi Mechanical assembly: An arrangement (stack) of levelled, film bound sacs (saccules) required
in the capacity, alteration and emission of proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids bound to leave the cell
(extracellular) and for use inside the cell (intracellular). The Golgi device is plentiful in secretory ...
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Bigger particles (counting microscopic organisms) enter extraordinary white platelets (phagocytes)
through a type of endocytosis called phagocytosis. The Single adaptable cell is a unicellular protist
that ingests sustenance (counting algal cells) by phagocytosis.
Lysosome: A film bound organelle containing hydrolytic (digestive) catalysts. Lysosomes begin as
layer bound vesicles (called Golgi vesicles) that bud from the Golgi mechanical assembly. They are
basically required with intracellular processing. Lysosomes wire with vesicles (little vacuoles)
framed by endocytosis. The substance of these vesicles are processed by lysosomal chemicals. Auto
absorption by lysosomes likewise happens amid embryonic improvement. The fingers of a human
developing life are webbed at first, however are isolated from each other by lysosomal catalysts.
Cells in the tail of a tadpole are processed by lysosomal compounds amid the continuous move into
a frog.
Peroxisome: A layer bound organelle that contains particular catalysts imported from the cytoplasm
(cytosol). For instance, certain peroxisomes contain the compound catalase which quickly separates
dangerous hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. This response can be effectively exhibited by
pouring some hydrogen peroxide on crude meat or an open injury.
Glycolysis: An anaerobic oxidation pathway outside of the mitochondria in which glucose is

Domestic Sex For Drugs Or Money?
What influences affected whether an adolescent would trade sex for drugs or money. Can this be
predicted by assessing the involvement and connection with parent(s)? Are there different degrees of
parental participation that will predict if youths will exchange sex for drugs or money? 3. Which
were the dependent and independent variables? Dependent variable– children that disclosed
exchanging sex for drugs or money. Independent variable– participation of the parents in the youth's
lives. 4. How were these concepts operationalized? Dependent– the adolescent responded either 1
(Yes) or 0 (No) to if they had ever exchanged sex for drugs or money. Independent– If the child
participated in the following activities with their ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Two important predictors of children exchanging sex for money or drugs was school involvement
and family structure. The children that exchange sex for money are more likely to use drugs and
alcohol. It was more likely for males to reveal that they have traded sex for drugs or money. 8. Do
you feel that the author(s) fulfilled his/her/their investigation? Yes 9. What is your critique of this
article? I feel that by doing in home interviews with the youths could produce misleading answers.
If the parents are present, then there could be some worry on consequences they may face if they
answer truthfully. Assignment 1.2 From the list of criminological/criminal justice journals in the
first chapter, go to the library and choose a recent issue of one of these. Now choose an article that
has an empirical (quantitative) orientation and answer or do the following: Note: You may not use
the same research article you used to complete Assignment 1.1. Habtom, H., Demanèche, S.,
Dawson, L., Azulay, C., Matan, O., Robe, P., ... Pasternak, Z. (2017). Soil characterisation by
bacterial community analysis for forensic applications: A quantitative comparison of environmental
technologies. Forensic Science International: Genetics, 26 p. 21–29.
doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2016.10.005. (Habtom et al., 2017) 1. What was the research problem? To
present forensic specialists with the tools to be able to evaluate soil microbial genetic profiling.
Also, to assist

Rna G Quadruplexes And Its Effects On The Society
ABSTRACT: An independently folding RNA G–quadruplex (GQ) forming domain interacts with
the 40S ribosomal subunit and determines their binding affinity and function of an internal
ribosomal entry site (IRES). The interaction begins to shed light to theprovide possible mechanistic
role of RNA GQ structures in cap–independent translation initiation.
RNA G–quadruplexes (GQ) structures are secondary nucleic acid structures are that can act as both
necessary elements of translation and as translation repressors. formed in guanine rich regions and
known to play crucial role in several biochemical processes. The RNA GQ structures are known to
modulate translation of several clinically significant mRNAs such as NRAS, ZIC1, BCL–2, TRf2,
FGF, VEGF, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Human vascular endothelial growth factor (hVEGF) is a key physiological and pathological
angiogenic growth factor. An increase in VEGF levels correlates with normal physiological
conditions, such as embryonic development, wound repair, adaptation to hypoxia and also in
pathological conditions such as proliferative retinopathies, arthritis, psoriasis, and tumor
angiogenesis.10–12 The 5′–UTR of hVEGF presence ofencompasses two independently functional
two IRESs (A and B). in the 5′–UTR has been established that can initiate translation independent of
each other. IRES A is the 293–nt–long fragment (745 to 1038 from 5 '–end of the mRNA)
immediately upstream of the canonical AUG translation start site. 13–16 The presence of a tunable
GQ structure in the IRES A was observed to be essential for cap–independent translation initiation.7
The IRES mediated translation initiation although initially observed in viral mRNAs has also been
identified in many cellular mRNAs.17
Translation initiation by IRESs involves a cap–independent mechanism wherein the 40S ribosomal
subunit and/or other IRES trans–acting factors (ITAFs) are recruited directly onto the mRNA and
rendering the requirement of the 5′–cap and some initiation factors unessential. Our investigations
into the secondary

Phylogenetic Analysis of Thermophilic Bacteria
We report the community of thermophilic bacteria cultivated from Tanjung Sakti Hot Spring in
South Sumatera Indonesia that has temperature 80 – 91 0C and pH 7 – 8. Based on phylogenetic
analysis, the 16 sequences of 16S rRNA gene fragments obtained from the community clustered
within four distinct genera as Anoxybacillus, Geobacillus, Brevibacillus, and Bacillus. Two
sequences that have 96% similarity with data sequences in GenBank, are potentially as novel
species/sub species.
Hot spring is a unique area that characterized by high temperature and has a great diversity of
natural environments. Understanding of thermophilic microbial diversity has opened up a lot of
information about microbial interactions with the environment. The ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Colonies formed was purified again with inscribed repeated several times in an agar medium.
DNA extraction from microbial culture
Microbial chromosomal DNA was isolated using Protein Purification Kit (Promega). Pellet cells
derived from microbial cultures were resuspended in 300 mL cell lysis solution, incubated at room
temperature for 10 minutes, then added 300 mL nuclei lysis solution and 2 mL RNase and incubated
at 37 ° C for 15 min. Next, add 300 mL of protein precipitation, and centrifuged 13,000 rpm for 10
min at 20 ° C. To the filtrate was added 300 mL of chloroform: isoamilalkohol (24:1), vortex and
centrifuged at 16,000 rpm for 30 seconds, the top layer is taken. The treatment is done 2 times.
Subsequently, 0.6 volume of isopropanol was added and incubated at room temperature for 60
minutes, centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 15 minutes. DNA pellet formed was washed with 70%
ethanol and then dried. DNA pellet is then dissolved in 50 mL ddH2O.
16S rRNA gene amplification
16S rRNA gene fragment was amplified by PCR using primers 27F and 1492R (Baker et.al, 2003,
Frank, et.al 2008). Amplification was performed by 30 cycles (denaturation 95 ° C for 30 s,
annealing 55 ° C for 60 s, chain extension 72 ° C for 90 seconds) with an initial denaturation 95 ° C
for 3 min and a final chain extension of 72 ° C for 5 min . Taq DNA polymerase enzyme (GoTaq
Green Master Mix from Promega) was used for the amplification reaction according to standard
usage.

Next Generation Sequencing Has Changed The Landscape Of...
Next generation sequencing has dramatically changed the landscape of microbial ecology, large–
scale and in–depth diversity studies being now widely accessible. However, determining the
accuracy of taxonomic and quantitative inferences and comparing results obtained with different
approaches are complicated by incongruence of experimental and computational data types and also
by lack of knowledge of the true ecological diversity. Here we used highly diverse bacterial and
archaeal synthetic communities assembled from pure genomic DNAs to compare inferences from
metagenomic and SSU rRNA amplicon sequencing. Both Illumina and 454 metagenomic data
outperformed amplicon sequencing in quantifying the community composition, but the outcome was
dependent on analysis parameters and platform. New approaches in processing and classifying
amplicons can reconstruct the taxonomic composition of the community with high reproducibility
within primer sets, but all tested primers sets lead to significant taxon–specific biases. Controlled
synthetic communities assembled to broadly mimic the phylogenetic richness in target environments
can provide important validation for fine–tuning experimental and computational parameters used to
characterize natural communities.
Introduction
For over two decades, amplification and sequencing of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU
rRNA or 16S rRNA) gene has been the primary approach to assess the abundance and taxonomic
identity of microbes in the

Lab report 1 Virtual Lab: Classifying Using Biotechnology...
Virtual Lab: Classifying Using Biotechnology
Worksheet
NOTE: As you read the information in the Microbiology Handbook, there may be some terms you
are not familiar with – such as 16s ribosomal RNA and Polymerase Chain Reaction. Refer to your
text to read background material explaining any terms or processes with which you are not familiar.
Record the results of your investigations of each unknown in Table 1 by completing the following
steps: 1) Apply the stain to your first unknown slide and examine it under the microscope. 2) Record
the shape of the bacteria, the arrangement of the bacteria, and the gram staining characteristics. 3)
Analyze and record the G+C content of the sample by dragging ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Which of the following statements is accurate regarding this sample a,d,f
a. It is a different species than any of the other species you have identified b. it is most closely
related to Staphylococcus aureus c. the bacterial cells will probably be rod–shaped d. the bacterial
cells are prokaryotic e. c and d f. a and d
3. You test another new unknown bacterial sample, and find the G+C content is identical to one of
the samples you have already identified, but the rRNA gene sequence contains one base that is
different. What can you conclude: C. a. the two samples are from unrelated species b. the two
samples are from closely related, but not identical, species c. the two samples are probably from the
same species d. there is not enough data to form a conclusion
5. According to your data, which two species that you identified diverged the longest time ago?
Staph Aureus and Strep mutans
6. Your lab partner hands you a slide with a new sample of a bacterium called Staphylococcus
mutans. What can you deduce about this bacterium? B a. it is closely related to streptococcus
mutans b. it is closely related to staphylococcus aureus c. it is closely related to both streptococcus
mutans and staphylococcus aureus d. it is closely related to either streptococcus mutan or
staphylococcus aureus

How Archaea Work in Symbiotic Relationship in the...
Introduction
Archaea and the origin of life. The word Archaea originated from the Greeks, meaning beginning.
Throughout this essay we will go through discovers of Archaea and why they are classified as
Prokaryotes and what the actual evolutionary relationship of Archaea to Eukaryotes and bacteria. We
will look at the differing views throughout the scientific community in regards to the number of
domains. Over whether three domains of life or two domains of life fit in the Tree of life. We will
look at some research that has supportive evidence of the same. This essay will then look at the
Habitat of Archaea – why many Archaea are classified as extremophiles and how these are not just
bacteria's and that extremophiles are a diverse group ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The distinction was made from Prokaryotes Bacteria and Archaea which are classified different to
the domain of the Eukaryotes and there four kingdoms (animals, plants, protists and fungi). The
Prokaryotes meaning comes for the Greek word meaning (pro) before and (karyon) meaning nut
or kernel Most of the prokaryotes can be seen as a unicellular organisms although the myxobacteria
have been seen in different stages in their life cycles like in colonies of cyanobacteria. (Also call
blue green algae) Which are predominantly photosynthetic and also fall into prokaryotes Eubacteria
kingdom. Although you can find some Algae as Eukaryotes domain. Like most algae's that are
photosynthetic can produce oxygen gas as a by–product. Theorists have proposed that this could
have been the link to change the early atmosphere on earth into and oxidizing one that enabled the
stimulation of the biodiversity of life that we see today.
Archaea have been examined in all different environmental stimulation using independently cultured
molecules, but most of the well–defined cultures have been from an extreme environment of high
pressure and temperature to very high or very low PH levels or what you would classes as very
anaerobic environments Archaea are more dominant in these types of conditions. Because Archaea
have an independent variable differences in their evolutionary history of biochemistry

Nucleic Acid Measurements
Lecture 8
Nucleic Acid–Based Measurements Text Chapter 13
Wednesday, July 24, 2013
Total community DNA
Extract DNA from soil
– – – – remove cells from soil separate cells from soil lyse cells separate DNA from cells – purify
DNA
Extract DNA from soil
– Extract DNA from cells in presence of soil
Bead–beating chemical or enzymatic treatment
– Sodium dodecyl sulfate or lysozyme
DNA purification
Cesium chloride gradient centrifugation Kits
Low density DNA
High density
Visualizing nucleic acidsBlotting
Southern blotting
– DNA
Northern blotting
– RNA

Agarose gel electrophoresis
–
Stain gel with ethidium ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
ednesday, July 24, 2013
50 µm
Combining ELF and CF319a probes to determine what portion of the PO4aseactive cells in floc
fall within cytophaga–flavobacteria group
ELFTM PO4ase CF319a FISH probe activity FISH probe PO4ase activity
17% of total community PO4ase activity contributed by cytophaga
Summary
FISH provides information on
– Presence of specific populations – Morphology of specific populations – Relative numerical
contribution of specific populations to total community – Spatial relationships between populations
– Functions associated with specific populations
Gene probe detection of a DNA sequence
Digoxigenin (DIG) Probes range in size from 18–100bp ssDNA
Denatured ssDNA from suspect bacterium
Alternative gene probe detection of a DNA sequence
Exploring microbial activity
Need to know sequence of gene being expressed Alternatively, use random hexamer primers, then
sequence cDNA product to identify gene being expressed
Reverse transcriptase PCR (RT–PCR)
Make single–strand cDNA from mRNA – downstream antisense primer or random hexamer and RT
to make complete cDNA copy of RNA molecule Use cDNA, DNA polymerase, and a downstream
primer in conventional PCR – extension leads to double–stranded DNA Regular PCR of dsDNA

Applications of RT–PCR
Detection of

wingwangs
Indicate whether each of the following statements about triglycerides is true or false.
Indicate whether each of the following statements about triglycerides is true or false.
1. A triacylglycerol is composed of 3 glycerol molecules joined to a fatty acid.
2. The hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids vary in length as well as in the number and location of
double bonds between the carbon atoms.
3. Fatty acids with one double bond in their hydrocarbon chain are called monounsaturated, while
those with more than one double bond are called polyunsaturated.
4. Additional hydrogen atoms can be added to saturated fats, a process called hydrogenation.
5. When unsaturated fats are partially hydrogenated industrially, this can produce trans fats ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
tract to break it down)
Nucleic Acids
–Nucleic acids = nucleotide polymers
Two types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA
RNA = protein worker (intermediaries), proteome (link b/w DNA and proteins)
DNA = genetic info (intstruction), genome
Nucleotides: 3 things required
–sugar = Ribose (RNA) and Deoxyribose (DNA)
–phosphate group
–nitrogenous bases –A, G C, T (DNA)
Phosphodiester bonds– joins nucleotides in nucleic acids
DNA has a double strand of nucleotides, held together by hydrogen bonds
RNA has a single strand of nucleotides
Proteins:
Functions:
–enzymesbiological catalysts –transporthemoglobin (transports O2 and CO2 through blood) –
support structuremuscles –motion –regulation of gene transcription, hormones etc.
Amino Acids:
Contain:
–(–NH2)/ amino acid end
–(–COOH)/carboxyl end

–a central carbon
–side

Results And Discussion Of Pcr And Dsrna Production Essay
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION PCR and dsRNA production Target sequences of 1501, 1576, 1650,
1750, 538, and 716 bp specific for gyrase A, gyrase rpo B1, rpo B2 and GFP were successfully
amplified with PCR (data not shown).. The in vitro transcription using T7 enzyme resulted in target
specific dsRNA of 1501, 1576, 1650, 1750, 538, and 716 bp for each of gyrase A, gyrase B, rpo B1,
rpo B2, L11, and GFP genes, respectively (Fig.1). In vitro growth inhibition assay B. bovis growth
(Fig. 2) from an initial parasitemia of 1% was significantly (ANOVA) inhibited at 10 µg/ml and 50
µg/ml concentrations of gyrase A, gyrase B, rpo B1 and B2, and L11 (Fig. 2). Treatment with a
mixture formed of 10 µg/ml gyrase A and 10 µg/ml gyrase B significantly inhibited the growth
(ANOVA, P 0.01). The mixture formed of 10 µg/ml rpo B1 and 10 µg/ml rpo B2 resulted in
significant inhibition of the growth (ANOVA, P 0.01) (Fig. 2). The single treatment with 10 µg/ml
or 50 µg/ml of each of the dsRNA of gyrase A, gyrase B, rpo B1, rpo B2, and L11 (Tukey–Kramer
HSD) did not show significant difference. There was no significant difference between the single
treatment with 10 µg/ml or 50 µg/ml of each dsRNA and the mixture formed of 10 µg/ml gyrase A
and 10 µg/ml gyrase B dsRNAs and the mixture formed of 10 µg/ml rpo B1 and 10 µg/ml rpo B2
dsRNAs

Human Gut Microbiomes
The area of human gut microbiomics is rather new, but it represents the largest amount of DNA in
the human body. Numerous studies are still underway and specifically, in regards to the neonatal
gut, it is still unclear how certain bacteria would promote or help prevent the apparition of disease.
(1) The study of the human microbiome has advanced at great strides thanks to the development of
massive genomic sequencing techniques that allow for the analysis of complex microbiomes in a
relatively short time. The fetal and neonatal microbiome is thought to be implicated in the
development of chronic medical conditions in adulthood like obesity or inflammatory bowel
disease. The premature gut is subjected to insults since birth and the microbiota that colonizes it is
quite abnormal compared to the term neonatal gut. (2, 3, 4) ... Show more content on
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This gene has a short sequence and highly conserved among hundreds of bacterial species. A PCR–
based method generates amplicons (a piece of DNA or RNA that is the source and/or product of
natural or artificial amplification or replication events) that can only be separated using temperature
(TGGE) or a chemical denaturant gradient (DGGE). Another method involves targeting the 16S
rRNA sequences by FISH in a direct manner, without lab cultivation. However, this requires the
need for previous knowing the sequence of interest. In shotgun sequencing, DNA is randomly
broken up into small segments which are then sequenced to obtain reads which are then
fragmented and sequenced multiple times to be assembled by computer software. Next –generation
sequencing produce shorter reads but many thousands or millions in a short time but at a more
computing expense.

Unit Three Lecture Study Guide
Unit 3 Lecture Study Guide
1. List the 4 primary tissue types and give the general characteristics and functions of each one.
2. How are epithelial tissues classified?
3. How does the type of epithelial tissue relate to its function? Give at least 1 example of where you
would find each type of epithelial tissue.
4. Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands. Give an example of each.
5. What is the difference between apocrine, merocrine and holocrine glands? Which is the most
common?
6. Describe connective tissue's intercellular material.
7. What are the 8 main types of connective tissue? Briefly describe each.
8. Order the types of connective tissue from most rigid to softest. Be sure that you ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are very strong, yet lightweight. Dense connective tissue, are cells crowded between collagen
fibers. Loose connective tissue is the most common type of tissue in vertebrates. It holds the organs
in place, and attaches to epithelial tissue. Reticular connective tissue is found around the liver, the
kidney, the spleen, the lymph nodes, and in bone marrow. It forms a soft skeleton that supports.
Blood is used to transport oxygen and nutrients to the cells.
8. Bone is the most rigid, and then comes cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue,
softest, blood.
9. Hyaline cartilage is found on many joint surfaces, it has a very firm consistency. It contains no
nerves or blood vessels, and its structure is relatively simple. Elastic cartilage, also called yellow
cartilage, is present in the ears; it contains elastic fiber networks and collagen fibers. Fibrocartilage
is found in the pubic symphysis, the annulus firbrosus of the intervertebral discs, menisci and the
TMJ. During labor, the pubic symphysis is loosened to aid in delivery.
10. two of the main types of muscle tissue correspond with muscles that are involuntary, they are
cardiac muscle, which includes the heart. Smooth muscle, which is also involuntary, and includes
the stomach, intestines, uterus, urethra, bladder, and blood vessels. The Skeletal muscles are

voluntary, they're attached to the bone and are used to affect skeletal movement.
11. The repair is initially started with the blood

Eukaryote Research Paper
The term 'eukaryote' encompasses most of the visible species on the planet. A eukaryotic cell is one
who's genetic material and organelles are bound by membranes, as opposed to a prokaryote who's
nucleoid and organelles are not membrane bound and sit within the cell membrane in the protoplasm
– this grouping is considered the most fundamental classifications of organisms.
Among numerous compartments and structures, most eukaryotic genetic information is held within
the nucleus, in chromosomes. The information itself is a degenerate code, with single units called
nucleotides. The main blueprint structure is called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. The product of
DNA governs almost all processes within every living cell; with so many millions of

Impact of Certain Gut Microbes on Body Composition and...
In this study, the authors sought to examine the impact of certain gut microbes on body composition
and metabolism. It has been previously reported that the microbial community composition is more
similar between related individuals. Thus, the authors of this study used both monozygotic and
dizygotic twin pairs that were discordant for obesity in that one of them was classified as obese
while the other one was not, as a model for studying the correlation between gut microbiota and
obesity and associated disorders. To do this, human fecal`microbes from each member of one of four
discordant twin pairs was transplanted into mice that were germ–free. The authors also investigated
which microbial taxa were more invasive, as well as the relationship between the phenotype of the
host and invasiveness. They also examined how a human diet can impact on invasion and microbial
niche. In order to examine this, mice that were coprophagic, meaning they consume fecal matter,
were housed together. Using Unweighted Uni–Frac analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) they
found that the transplant recipient mice acquired the microbial species (microbiota) of the human
donor efficiently. Furthermore, comparing enzyme commission numbers (ECs) of the genes using a
shotgun sequencing–based approach, it was found that the collection of microbrial genes
(microbiome) of the human donor was also efficiently acquired by the recipient. These results were
able to be reproduced. A data set using the 16S

Functions Of The Mechanism Of Gene Expression
Researchers daily utilize the knowledge of the mechanism of gene expression, allowing them to
operate in different areas. An example is the imposition of certain conditions to micro–organisms,
which are capable of producing drugs or induce cells to function properly, which is of great
importance in medicine. Great emphasis is placed on control systems based on proteins but recently
research started to also focus on the use of systems based on RNA, which is equally as polypeptides
involved in the regulation of processes such as transcription, mRNA degradation and translation.
Ribonucleic acid can regulate gene expression by the presence of the particles in the chain, where
the individual parts are complementary to each other and can form hydrogen bonds therebetween to
form a secondary structures. TRANSCRIPTION transcriptionis the first stage of gene expression. Its
mechanism is based on rewriting the genetic information contained in the nucleotide sequence of the
DNA strand to the RNA. The process can be divided into the initiation, elongation and termination.
In a first step, an RNA polymerase binds to the denatured template locally at the site promoter.
Then, in elongation step, it adds more ribonucleotides, complementay to the DNA strand, to the
nascent mRNA in the 5 '→ 3 '. The process terminates at terminacyjnym, which mostly is
characterized by regions complementary to each other, resulting in the formation of secondary
structure in a transcript hairpin [5]. In

Rna Review : The Rna
RNA GQ structures in cap–independent translation initiation.
RNA G–quadruplex (GQ) is a secondary structure that can act as both necessary elements of
translation and as translation repressors.1–3 The role of GQ structures in translational modulation
depends on the context in which the GQ structure is present.4 However, it is well established that
these structures mostly inhibit translation.2,5–7 In fact, rational introduction of GQ structures
specifically downregulate the expression of targeted genes.8,9 AlternativelyHowever, the presence
of the GQ structures in IRES reverses its inhibitory role. In the cases of FGF and VEGF where the
GQ structures are present in the context of an IRES, they act as essential elements for translation
initiation.10,11 HoweverNevertheless, the mechanism by which the GQ structures play a context–
dependent regulatory role is unknown. Here we report that the direct interaction of the
independently folding GQ domain with the 40S ribosomal subunit (40S subunit) is critical for the
cap–independent translation initiation in a cellular IRES. It is a unique example of a non–canonical
and well–defined RNA secondary structure that has the ability to recruit the 40S subunit directly and
modulate the function of a cellular IRES.
The IRES mediated translation initiation, although initially observed in viral mRNAs, has also been
identified in many cellular mRNAs.12 The 5′–UTR of human vascular endothelial growth factor
(hVEGF) encompasses IRES elements.

Nihms
NIH Public Access Author Manuscript Nat Rev Microbiol. Author manuscript; available in PMC
2013 January 03. Published in final edited form as: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2011 April ; 9(4): 244–253.
doi:10.1038/nrmicro2537. The skin microbiome $watermark–text Elizabeth A. Grice and Julia A.
Segre Genetics and Molecular Biology Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute,
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892–4442, USA. Abstract $watermark–text
The skin is the human body's largest organ, colonized by a diverse milieu of microorganisms, most
of which are harmless or even beneficial to their host. Colonization is driven by the ecology of the
skin surface, which is highly variable depending on ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The skin is a continuously selfrenewing organ, and squames are constantly shed from the skin
surface as the final stage of terminal differentiation, having begun their migration from the basal
layer ~4 weeks earlier12. Invaginations and appendages $watermark–text Cutaneous invaginations
and appendages, including sweat glands (eccrine and apocrine), sebaceous glands and hair follicles,
are likely to be associated with their own unique microbiota13 (FIG. 1). Eccrine glands, which are
more abundant than apocrine glands, are found on virtually all skin surfaces and continuously bathe
the skin surface with their secretion, which is composed mainly of water and salt. The primary role
of eccrine sweat is thermoregulation through the release of latent heat from the evaporation of water.
Additional functions of eccrine glands include excretion of water and electrolytes, and acidification
of the skin, which prevents the colonization and growth of microorganisms. Apocrine glands, which
are located in the axillary vault (armpit), nipple and genitoanal regions, respond to adrenaline by
producing milky, viscous, odourless secretions. Apocrine secretions have long been postulated to
contain pheromones, which are molecules that trigger certain behaviours (for example, sexual or
alarm) in the receiving individual14. The stereotypical

Biological Macromolecule Polyhydroxybutyrate ( Phb )
ABSTRACT
The important biological macromolecule polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) producing Bacillus subtilis
was isolated from the sewage sample and identified by means of 16S rRNA analysis. The renewable
nature and biodegradability of PHBs make them suitable materials to replace synthetic plastics in
many applications. Currently their production is expensive, but these plastics are only in their first
stage of commercial development. In the present study the physico–chemical parameters such as
Time, Temperature and pH were optimized for increased production of PHB. It was found that
maximum production of PHB was observed at 48th hour (328µg/ml) of incubation time,
temperature 370C (336µg/ml), pH 7.5 (362 µg/ml). The low cost production media was developed
using fruit peel extract and sugarcane industrial waste. The amount of PHB produced using low cost
production media in fruit peel (234µg/ml) and industrial waste (218µg/ml). The PHB was
characterized using FTIR and NMR analysis.
Keywords: polyhydroxybutyrate, Bacillus subtilis, optimization, INTRODUCTION The human
population has led to the accumulation of huge amounts of non–degradable waste materials across
our planet. The problem of environmental pollution was caused by indiscriminate dumping of
plastic waste has assumed global proportions. They are used in almost all industries, especially for
packaging and they account for more than 50% of total consumption, especially they are used for
bottling and baling. They

Protein Synthesis and Transcription
Beadle and Tatum's experiment and their one gene one enzyme hypothesis showed that the
production of one protein is dependent on one gene.
Francis Crick originated the idea of the central dogma. It states that biological information can only
flow in one direction: from DNA to RNA to a protein.
The three key types of RNA that are involved in protein synthesis are mRNA (messenger RNA),
rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and tRNA (transfer RNA). The way I learned to remember the functions of
these three is the same way it's shown on the estrellamountain website. mRNA is like the blueprint
of a construction site with its copy of the genetic information of DNA, rRNA is like the construction
site where the protein is made, and tRNA is like the delivery truck that brings amino acids to where
they need to be at the right time. Transcription is when RNA is formed by using an enzyme called
RNA polymerase to copy a strand of DNA. Before it can begin, a protein called a transcription
factor has to bind to the promoter (a region in the DNA that identifies where a gene starts, where it's
supposed to be copied, and in what direction). Then, the polymerase binds to these two things
(promoter transcription factor) before it unwinds the template strand of DNA between the
promoter and the terminator. The RNA polymerase copies the template strand of DNA by matching
the original nucleotides with their complementary base pairs – the only difference is that instead of
adenine being matched with thymine,

Similarities And Differences Of Dna And Rna
Similarities differences of DNA and RNA. (P1)
Similarities between DNA and RNA:
1) Both have the 3 bases which are Adenine, Cytosine and Guanine. Also known as A, C and G.
2) Both have nucleotides
3) Both compromise of pentose sugar.
4) Both compromise of phosphate groups
5) Both compromise of nitrogenous bases.
Differences between DNA and RNA
De–oxyribonucleic Acid Ribo–nucleuic Acid
DNA is double stranded RNA is single stranded
DNA is known to be stable RNA is known to be less stable
DNA has the base Thymine a.k.a. T RNA has the base Uracil a.k.a. U
DNA has the sugar de–oxyribose RNA has the sugar ribose
DNA is always located inside the nucleus RNA eventually exits the nucleus.
Differences between the 3 types of RNAs – tRNA, mRNA, rRNA
Transfer RNA a.k.a tRNA Messenger RNA a.k.a mRNA Ribosomal RNA a.k.a rRNA
Consisting of 80 nucleotides (estimate) Consisting of between 100 and 1000 nucleotides (estimate)
Located in the cytoplasm of a cell Travels from the nucleus towards to the cytoplasm Like tRNA,
rRNA is located in the cytoplasm of a cell.
Involved in protein synthesis – by making polypeptides Transports genetic info from the nucleus to
the cytoplasm Translation of mRNA is turned into proteins by the rRNA
One part has a sequence of 3 bases which make up anti–codon. Formed in the nucleus by copying
the gene from DNA in the process of transcription Part of the ribosome's structure
Properties of the Genetic Code of DNA (M1)
In whole, DNA is made up of nitrogenous

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