Similarities Between Chimpanzees And Chimpanzees

Similarities Between Chimpanzees And Chimpanzees
For years, there has been question as to where humans came from. Many people believe we evolved
from monkeys, but that is not true. Human are more closely related to modern day apes. However,
we did not evolve from apes either. In Africa, gorillas and chimpanzees are the two primates which
humans share a common ancestor with. This common ancestor is said to have existed 5 to 8 million
years ago. The species then divided into two separate lineages and evolved into gorillas and chimps,
and the other into early ancestors called hominids. Fossils have been found that provide evidence of
these hominids. It is hard for fossils to be categorized as species or another. Like every other
creature, no two are alike so it's hard to separate the hominid fossils because they have evolved and
some changed into new species. The main evidence is that of fossils. In the deeper layers of the
Earth 's crust we find no fossils. Then we find fossils of simple organisms in younger layers. As we
go up higher in the rocks, we start finding larger, more complex organisms along with the simple
ones. Sometimes we see fossils that look like a step between older fossils and newer ones. As we
travel through time, or up layers of fossils, we also see some kinds of fossils disappear. These types
of plants and animals probably went extinct. The first primates appeared in the fossil record about
70 million years ago. In rocks that are about 3 million years old, the first human–like fossil
skeletons were
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The Anatomy of Homo Sapiens is Unique
The anatomy of Homo sapiens is unique in several ways and sets us apart from other species all
across the world. One of the most distinguishing characteristics that differentiates Homo sapiens
from other species is the utilization of bipedal locomotion. Humans have established a unique way
of moving from one location to another that is due to the evolution numerous anatomical
developments over millions of years. Hominid bipedalism has evolved as a product of natural
selection, a theory coined by Charles Darwin in 1859. This theory of evolution through the process
of natural selection explains that some organisms are more reproductively fit than others. Therefore,
these organisms are able to pass on their beneficial genes to the next generation. Essentially, traits
that give certain organisms specific advantages, such as bipedalism in hominids, will be selected for
in greater numbers, and therefore more individuals in the succeeding populations will display these
beneficial traits (Darwin 1859). Darwin's theory can be used to help describe the central idea behind
the fascinating transformation process from quadrupedalism to bipedalism.
One of the most intriguing aspects surrounding this topic is the multiple different hypotheses for the
evolution from quadrupedal gait to bipedal locomotion. Due to the fact that evidence suggests that
the emergence of bipedalism occurred as early as 6 millions years ago, there have been many
hyptotheses as to how the earliest hominids

Fact and Theories on Australopithecus Afarensis
Report: Australopithecus Afarensis
I have decided to base my Anthropology 101 Report on the Australopithecus Afarensis, as I have
found the Australopithecus Afarensis to be both an interesting species and subject for my report.
This paper will look at known facts, theories, and determinations as regards similarities between
Australopithecus Afarensis, apes, and we as humans. Fossil evidence such as that of "Lucy", the
most significant of an A. Afarensis discovered by paleoanthropologists will be scrutinized.
Australopithecus Afarensis, is the name applied to an extinct family of hominids (Primates) to have
lived some 2.9–3.9 million years ago. "Lucy" an A. Afarensis fossil is considered one of the best
examples of this species which are believed to have survived for some 900,000 plus years which is
roughly 4 four times the duration we as humans have existed. The A. Afarensis is considered a
gracile species, which means to be smaller and of a lighter build than the genus Australopithecus. It
is maintained that A. Afarensis is more closely related to the genus homo then we Homo sapiens are.
While A. Afarensis fossils have been found mainly in East Africa, there does exist evidence of
Australopithecus Afarensis existed at sites in Hadar, Ethiopia. (More on that later).
Skull of an Australopithecus Afarensis: Lucy When it comes to the Australopithecus Afarensis, the
most famous examples include "Lucy found in Hadar Ethiopia, the Dikika

The Importance Of Human Evolution
Through research it has been determined that evolution is a part of nature, and organisms become
more complex over time. As organisms become more complex their characteristics begin to change,
and aspects that are beneficial for their survival become prominent in their offspring. However,
characteristics that are not beneficial to their survival begins to fade as organism evolve. From this
arise Charles Darwin's theory that evolution occurs because of natural selection, expressing that
organisms with the best characters will have a higher survival rates and have the ability to pass these
characteristics to their offsprings. Branching out from the theory of evolution it is believed that all
species have a common ancestor. Depending on how similar and different species are the further
back in time they would share a common ancestor. By discovering fossil remains, using radioactive
dating, and DNA mutation rates scientist were able to develop a phylogenetic tree. As of right now
the phylogenetic tree is extensive, but it is not complete. Human evolution is a prime example of a
branch that is still incomplete. By comparing DNA it has been determined that Chimps and Human
DNA are 98.8 percent similar, however we are still different species (1). The question that still needs
to be answered is who is the common ancestor of Human and Chimps. Recently human ancestry has
become clear through the discovery of Ardipithecus ramidus, commonly referred to as Ardi. A group
of scientists

The Australopithecus Afarensis
Many people ask questions about how was the first human created? Anthropologists work day and
night to try to find the answer to this question. One lead they do have is the discovery of a first
human fossil in Ethiopia. Scientists believed that through looking at the timeline of the fossil the
first human appeared originally at 2.8 million years. But discovered that the first human was
400,000 years older that they thought.
Prof Brian Villmoare of the university in Vegas said that it contains a clear link into a 3.2 million
year old hominid who was eventually discovered in the same place in 1994 who was called Lucy.
Anthropologists question if Lucy's kind which is the Australopithecus afarensis could have evolved
into which may be the very

Why Did Homo Sapiens Survive?
When you look around, there is no denying that we all have a resemblance to each other. There are
many things that could explain this, but the most looked into is that we have a common ancestor,
and there is proof to back it up. With that proof also come questions like Why are there so many
different species? And Why did only homo sapiens survive?
Many ask, what is a common ancestor? A common ancestor would be an ape like creature which the
apes and early hominids must have breeded with in order to create different species of "humans".
Once the early apes breeded with it, they produced a different animal which evolutionized to be
modern aps. Once early hominids breeded with it, they produced an animal which branched out to
eventually leave homo sapiens roaming and later dominating the earth. This theory doesn't stand
alone, there is a great variety of fossil evidence to back it up.
The theory of a common ancestor has plenty of fossil evidence to back it up. Throughout the years
fossils from different human ancestors from different ages have been found. In 1856, the fossils of
neanderthals were found. Neanderthals lived from 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, they had a big
brain made of 1400 cc's, they were social, big creatures that learned to use and make tools and made
cave art. Neanderthals also buried their dead, like modern day humans. In 1892, the fossils of homo
erectus were found. Homo erectus lived about 1.8 million years ago. They had a brain of 600 to

Ardipithecus Ramidus
In this article "A New Kind of Ancestor: Ardipithecus Unveiled", Ann Gibbon explains the
discovery of an international Scientific's team. This finding is the oldest known human ancestor
skeleton and it has 4.4 million years. The Ardipithecus ramidus is the most complete earliest
hominin found until now because it has the pelvis, hands, feets and most of the skull and teeth, it is
bipedal and its features show a new early hominin, but is still being similar to other species.
Scientifics have been investigating more than twenty of years. In 1974, "Lucy", a 3.2 million years
old skeleton appeared. They thought that it was the discovery of the century. This phenomenon
indicated that our ancestors walked upright. Since that moment, researches

Australopithecus
Australopithecus, group of extinct creatures closely related to, if not actually ancestors of, modern
human beings and known from a series of fossils found at numerous sites in eastern, central, and
southern Africa. The various species of Australopithecus lived during the. As characterized by the
fossil evidence, they bore a combination of human. Like humans, they were bipedal (that is, they
walked on two legs. But like apes, they had small brains. Their canine teeth were small like those of
humans, but their cheek teeth were large. The genus name meaning "southern ape" refers to the first
fossils found, which were discovered in South Africa. the most famous example of Australopithecus
is "Lucy,". Homo erectus was one of the hominid species, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
According to the fossil evidences, they lived until 1.3 million years from today and the earliest
Homo erectus fossil dates to 1.8 million years. Until recent findings about the fossils of Homo
habilis, it was believed that H. erectus descended into H. habilis. H. erectus was the first to move out
from Africa, and they have gone into many places of the world as their fossils from different regions
of the world suggest. They were intelligent as you like with some had cranial capacities up to 1,100
cm3, but some had about 850 cm3. The face profile was not much protruded like in
Australopithecus, and erectus man was averagely 5 feet and 10 inches tall. Additionally, the females
were considerably smaller than males (by 25%). There are evidences to suggest that they used fire
and tools in easing their functions. The important difference is that early humans developed smaller
mouths and teeth, especially molars and premolars. Much of the reason for the smaller mouths was
due to the increase in the size of the brain and cranial capacity. However, smaller mouths and teeth
also indicated that early humans had softer diets than their evolutionary

Australopithecus Afarensis
When australopithecus afarensis was first discovered it was thought to be the ancestor of genus
homo, even though "there was a virtual lack of a hominin fossil record in East Africa dating to 3–2
mya, the time which earliest Homo likely evolved" (Our Origins). This, however, changed when
australopithecus garhi was discovered later in 1999 in the Hata beds of Ethiopa's Middle Awash
(Asfaw, White Lovejoy, et. al,). Au. garhi could possibly be the ancestor of the genus homo. Au.
garhi like Au. afarensis had a primitive face projection beneath the nose and a small brain. (Our
Origins). However the ratio of the arm to leg length that was found was in Au. garhi much
humanlike than apelike. (Our Origins). Due to its physical features including its

Conflict Between The Multiple Theories Of Bipedalism
Conflict Between the Multiple Theories of Bipedalism Why early hominins, the evolutionary
ancestors of Homo sapiens, originally became bipedal is a source of contention among many
physical anthropologists both today and in the past. There are multiple theories and models that have
surfaced over the years to explain why these early hominins evolved to become bipedal, but because
there is limited fossil evidence and very few intact pelvises from that time period to study, it's
difficult to conclusively conjecture about why this bipedal trait was initially selected for, and also
what events or characteristics made bipedalism more useful to early hominins. One of the more
interesting models to be developed on the subject of bipedalism was ... Show more content on
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More fossils being discovered and the research that follows those discoveries can help to explain
why early hominins – and only hominins out of all of the other ape–like species that were sharing
the planet at the time – evolved to become entirely bipedal. Here, we will look at Wheeler's original
Thermoregulatory Model and what it gives as the reason for the evolution of bipedalism, and at two
other papers that mention Wheeler's Thermoregulatory model and discuss just how much they
believe the evolution of the bipedal trait was influenced by these thermoregulatory factors.
Wheeler's original 1984 paper on his Thermoregulatory Model states that bipedalism mainly
evolved to become a more efficient thermoregulatory system for early hominins, because of a much
needed internal cooling system for their larger brains. He says that, "hyperthermia, induced by
muscular activity or high environmental temperatures," is a serious problem for animals that are
mostly terrestrial, and that, "the central nervous system is particularly sensitive," to these elevations
in body temperature. (Wheeler 91) While many animals that have adapted to these hot environments
have a carotid rete – a system of veins and arteries near the bottom of the brain – to regulate brain
temperature, hominins and all other primates lack such a biological trait.
Since the newly diurnal hominins often went foraging on the open savanna during the day where
heat was an intense issue, and

Bones Don't Lie Essay
Bones Don't Lie The Creationist and Evolutionist worldview is one of, if not, the most controversial
issue ever debated, and has been for centuries. The two oppositional worldviews are at, what seems
to be, an unending war. Mainly because of their many blatant differences like: the age of the earth,
the fossil record, the origin of plants and animal, but none more prominent than the issue regarding
the origin of mankind.
The Evolutionist worldview believes that everything in the universe: "a process in which something
passes by degrees to a different stage (especially a more advanced or mature stage)"; including life,
came forth of a naturalistic cause. From a simplistic form of some sort and gradually develops over
billions and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Evolution is a theory taught as a fact in almost every institution world wide, from all level of
academics: grades school to prestige colleges like Harvard and Oxford University. One of the many
suppose "missing links" taught as evidence is "Lucy" (AL 288–1), the Australopithecus afarensis
hominoid, strongly held as the best evidence for the evolution of ape to human (Oard, Richard).
The discovery of "Lucy" was unearthed on November 30, 1974 by Donald Johanson and Maurice
Taieb near Hadar, Ethiopia. It was named after the song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" sang by
the Beatles. Her age is staggeringly dated to be 3.18 million years old; one of the oldest remains
found. One of the reasons for the upholding this was because she has the most excavated "intact"
skeletal remains, or so it seems, with approximately 40 percent. Some of the bones includes: the jaw
bone, hip bone, mostly rib fragments, pieces of the skull, phalanges or finger and toe bones, and the
leg bones. It was from these leg bones that Johanson made the claim of Lucy walking in an upright
position; a common characteristic of "ape–like" creature. The hand of Lucy clearly showed
elongated bones; typical of chimpanzee like ape for climbing and swinging in trees. The structure of
her pelvis was way to damage to get a valid interpretation. When it was reconstructed, it was the
size smaller than that of modern chimpanzees (Hausler).
However, new data clearly show now that Lucy

Australopithecus Garhi Research Paper
Australopithecus garhi is a less robust australopithecine that was discovered in Ethiopia. The first
discovery of a A. garhi fossil occurred in 1990, when a mandible was found at the Bouri Formation.
Through dating of the fossil, it was found that the mandible was to be about 2.5 million years old. At
the time of this find, the only known hominin that would have lived at this time would have been
Paranthropus aethiopicus. This mandible, however, had different morphology and characteristics
than P. aethiopicus, leading researchers to continue searching for more fossils of this unknown
hominin in the Bouri Formation. Following extensive excavation in the Bouri Formation for the
greater part of the 1990's, additional fossils were found that included ... Show more content on
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sediba provides a bit of an enigma. Lee Berger himself hypothesizes that due to their similarities in
morphology and geographic area, A. sediba descended from A. africanus. With a combination of
both primitive and more modern characteristics, it could possibly be the hominin ancestor that
connects directly to the Homo genus. Morphologically, A. sediba had changes in the hip joint and
pelvis that suggest a shift towards obligate bipedalism. Furthermore, the femur bones of A. sediba
are very strong and also lend evidence toward the idea that they practices a more "human" form of
bipedalism. However, it is to note that researchers have found that the manner of the bipedal strides
was unlike any other species. A. sediba would walk with its feet turned inward while most of its
weight was on the outside of the feet. Because of this difference in strides, some speculate that this
is evidence for the theory that bipedalism evolved more than once within human evolution
("Australopithecus Sediba" 2016). There has also been some speculation about A. sediba being
partially arboreal due to its relatively small body and long arms. Evidence into the diet of A. sediba
through isotope analysis adds validity to this claim, as the analysis showed a preference towards
grasses and barks found in forests (Henry et al. 2012). While there is evidence for a connection to
the Homo genus, there still are current debates over whether A. sediba should be

The Evolution Of Human Species Essay
In recent years, anthropologists have made great progress in discovering all of the different kinds of
human species. The discovery of a certain early human species, Australopithecus afarensis was
initially credited to the finding of a single individual, AL 288–1, or "Lucy." She has helped
anthropologists to understand the diet, anatomy, environment, sexual dimorphism, the technology or
tools used during their time, and bipedalism of this early hominin species. The evolution of humans
is interesting due to the questions we are trying to find and the answers we might never find. With
the finding of Australopithecus Afarensis and Lucy, we can understand what our early hominin
ancestors were like and the significant changes that were made from them to us today.
Humans created a theory that millions of years ago humans walked the earth, but it was not until
recently that theory became a fact. In 1974, a partial skeleton was uncovered in Hadar, Ethiopia, by
American paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson. This skeleton was named 'AL 288–1 and later
given the nickname, 'Lucy.' She received the name Lucy from a popular song at the time of her
discovery, 'Lucy in the sky with diamonds', by The Beatles. After a series of tests, the age of Lucy
was soon determined to be an estimated 3.2 million–years–old (Dorey & Blaxland, 2015). Her sex
was established by using one of the pelvic bones and sacrum that was discovered at the Hadar dig
site. The weight and height of Lucy have been

Australopithecus Afarensis, and Australopithecus Africanus...
The phylogeny started off with Proconsul heseloni as the common ancestor to Sivapithecus indicus,
Australopithecus afarensis, and Australopithecus Africanus. The reasoning for this was from the
approximated age of Proconsul heseloni of 23 million years ago. This places Sivapithecus indicus
roughly 15 million years after, suggesting that Sivapithecus indicus directly evolved from Proconsul
heseloni.
From Proconsul heseloni, it was decided that three species evolved from it. These species included
A. A. afarensis, A. africanus and Sivapithecus indicus. Sivapithecus indicus was branched off the
early human evolutionary line as the characteristics from the dentation and skull characteristics
differed from that of A. afarensis and A. africanus ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This difference can be used to infer that they lived in different areas of the world as it can be
assumed that the diets of the two were unalike, explaining the dissimilarity of the canine size. As it
is inferred that the two species lived in different regions of the world, it can be assumed that they
co–existed at the same time period.
Homo habilis followed A. africanus indicating that A. africanus was a direct ancestor of H. habilis.
The reasoning for this included the brain weight and body weight of the H. habilis slightly increased
from that of A. africanus. As there was a general increase the overall brain to body weight ratio,
indicating that there was an increase in the overall body weight of the two.
Homo erectus was branched off after H. habilis as the justification for this was from the muzzle
angles of the different species. As H. erectus had a muzzle angle of 107° it was decided that it was
reasonable to assume that H. erectus evolved from H. habilis. However, in the overall positioning of
the phylogeny, it was placed on a side branch off H. habilis. This reasoning for this was that if H.
erectus was placed on the main evolutionary line to evolve from H. ergaster, the muzzle angles from
H. ergaster, H. erectus, and Homo neaderthalensis would increase then decrease. It would not be
logical to place H. erectus on the main evolutionary line. Further justification that H. erectus was not
a direct ancestor

Analysis Of Don Johanson's Lucy. Fossil-In Search Of Human...
In Search of Human Origins
On November 30th, 1974, a female who is half human and half ape collapsed into an ancient lake
approximately three million years ago. Don Johanson who is an Anthropologist, who has been
leading fodiscovered her fossilized bones and named her Lucy. Fossil are evidence of ancient life
forms or ancient habitats which have been preserved by natural processes He found several bone
fragments such as, a jaw bone, a leg, and a bit of skull. About 40 percent of Lucy skeleton was
found. Johanson categorized as a early species of hominids: Australopithecus afarensis,This
marvelous discovery has questioned all people over the world, if Lucy was the missing link between
ape and us. She left a few of clues to her life and origins.

Human Evolutionary Traits and Behjaviours: Bipedalism Essay
Throughout the conceptual yet acknowledged theories surrounding human evolutionary traits and
behaviours, the exact forces that specifically promoted bipedalism are still difficult to determine.
Controversy lies with the suggestion that bipedalism arose from as early as 5.8 million years ago, in
the late Miocene era, but it can be scientifically defined that the first definite bipedal hominin was
the Australopithecus anamensis in the Pliocene. These findings suggest that at 3.9–2.9 million years
ago, bipedalism was evolving; certain conditions acted as influences upon the hominins to develop
bipedality. As such, specific selection pressures have since been proposed during evolutionary
studies to indicate the exact circumstances which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What's more, the ability to use the freed limbs for foraging on the ground encouraged the
consumption of seeds and grain (Jolly, 1970). The option to carry food from one place to another
would also be offered. The convenience of carrying young to safety also highlights a likely benefit
of bipedalism. Conceivably, it was the increase in food variety, abundance and dispersion which
stimulated such deviation towards terrestrial locomotion. It is widely recognised that at some time,
the hominins advanced to the ground in order to collect food instead of staying in the trees
(Stanford, 2003). Perchance, this was "owing to a change in its manner of procuring substinence, or
to a change in the conditions" (Darwin, 1871).
Ecology:
During the Miocene era, 'Stanford's hypothesis' portrays the thought that there was a significant
change of the environment in East Africa and its ecological state. It is understood that the dense
forested areas began to disperse, and though gradual, the hominins living at the time would have had
to alter their lifestyles to suit such a shift in their ecosystem. This change occurred "as rainfall
declined and the degree of seasonality rose" (Stanford, 2003, p. 120). The foregoing vegetation
which could not cope with the drier climatic conditions then began to diminish. This, in turn,
prompted the spreading of different plant life, and

Similarities Between Homo Naledi And Australopithecus Sediba
Introduction this essay supports that due to the anatomical and physiological characteristics between
Homo naledi and Australopithecus sediba are more similar than they are different they should be
placed in the same genus.
Purpose of genus
The purpose of taxa are to classify organisms with similar characteristics in the same group. The
first taxa (kingdom) is the broadest group and the most specific is the taxa species. The genus name
narrows the range of organisms to those whose specific traits are similar and the species name is
given to one specific species where all the individuals have the same characterisitcs. The purpose of
a genus is to show that all the individuals that belong to that genus are more closely related than to
individuals ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From the analysis of the cave that Homo naledi was found in and the fossils themselves it is evident
that they were placed there purposefully. (Source G) Therefore, it is possible that the fossils of the
individuals found were already dead when they were placed into this cave. They were not buried as
they were not covered in any form but this could indicate an advancement in their emotional
connection with one another. The fossils of A. sediba, however, had fallen into the cave in a possible
search for water. This is seen in the fracture in one of the fossils arms. (Source M) Therefore, there
were no signs of burial. Homo naledi may have possessed emotional connections that A. sediba did
not have. However, the concept of burial and these emotions of honouring the dead would require a
brain that was much larger than the size of Homo

The Theory Of Natural Selection
A theory discovered by Charles Darwin, and released to the public in 1859, answered many
questions for scientists who weren't able to figure it out. Using the Theory of Natural Selection, he
came up with the Theory of Evolution. In the Evolution theory, it states the genes that allow a
species to thrive are passed down from parent to offspring and it also provides us with an insight of
the changes an organism goes through over time, in which it relies on Natural Selection to do so.
Despite doubters and opposers, there has been lots of evidence to prove it such as Biogeography,
Biochemistry, relative dating, embryology, and homology. Biogeography refers to the distribution of
plants and animals, while biochemistry refers to DNA similarity ... Show more content on
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In order to do so, I had to find the opisthocranion–opisthion distance and the opisthocranion–orale
distance for the bipedalism, the maxillary angle for prognathism, and the height, length, and width
of the skull to find the cranial capacity. The ardipithecus ramidus has an opisthion index of 32, the
australopithecus aethiopicus is 27.3 cm, the australopithecus afarensis is 22.2222 cm, the
australopithecus africanus is 27.58 cm, the australopithecus boisei is 28.12 cm, the homo erectus is
34.5 cm, the homo habilis is 30.8 cm, the homo heidelbergensis is 26.7 cm, the homo
neanderthalensis is 43.75 cm, the homo sapiens are 72.72727272 cm, and the sahelanthropus
tchadensis is 23.333 cm. Based on MY data, all of the tested skulls were bipedal organisms who
could walk on two legs. Using the same order as a while ago, the maxillary angle were 27, 39, 85,
102, 47, 56, 90, 59, 75, 42, and 70 degrees. So out of the fourteen skulls, about 6 of them were
prognathic, meaning they have the lower jaw sticking out. Using the same order as a while ago, the
cranial capacity of the skulls were about 622.04, 1,431.13, 850.85, 975.46, 1,884.96, 1,744.64,
964.86, 1,446.45, 1,979.21, 2,243.102, and 942.48cm^3. The skull with the biggest capacity are the
homo sapiens, while the ardipithecus ramidus had the smallest. My data shows how the current
human skull has evolved a lot from our ancestors in many ways. Based off my data and information,
I predict that the climate and

Strangers Somewhat Like Me
As I look around me, first to the right, then the left, up and down, I see creatures that look as I do yet
they are very different. We have many similarities. Perhaps we are related? These creatures called
Homo sapiens are most certainly different than my kind, Australopithecus afarensis. I can see we
move the same way, both of us walk upright and on two legs, apparently. I see that we both have
eyes not to the side of our head but in the front. I also see parents caring for their children who are
more than a few years old. While I see all of these similarities I see few major differences between
us. A few differences that I can easily spot are that their head is much larger than my own but their
jaw is smaller, their bodies are also different than mine, and they communicate using a type of
language. One of the first observations I made when I saw the Homo sapiens was they have an
incredibly large head. They must be highly intelligent, their brain size is about 1300 cubic
centimeters(Dorey 2013) while mine is merely 430 cubic centimeters (Larson 2013: 250). With a
brain this large it is easy to see how they were able to make many of the tools that have helped adapt
to their environment. In a way these Homo sapiens are able to make their own environment. Homo
sapiens are able to adapt to may kinds of climate and terrains without much difficulty. Along with
their large head size their teeth are also a bit strange. Homo sapiens have a smaller jaw than I do,
suggesting that

Lucy Human Evolution
'Lucy' was exposed by Donald Johanson, an anthropologist, with his team, went to survey Hadar in
Ethiopia during the late 1970s for signs in understanding Human origins. On November 24, 1974 by
the Awash River, Donald's' plan for the day was to update his notes but decided otherwise when one
of his students, Tom Gray, joined him to find fossil bones. Both of them were on the hot waterless
plains examining the sandy terrain when a fossil was spotted; it turned out to be an arm bone
fragments on a slope. As they looked closer, more and more bones were found, including a jaw, arm
bone, a thighbone, ribs, and vertebrae. Donald and Tom had cautiously examined the limited
skeleton and calculated that a remarkable 40% of a hominid skeleton was salvaged, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Experts claim that Lucy was in certain ways more adapted to walking vertical than a modern human,
as the pelvis has to cooperate between bipedal (using only two legs for walking) movement and the
capability to give birth to big–brained offspring. Others talk about her arms, saying they were longer
than a modern human's, and the bones of her fingers were curve, these were also seen in tree–
dwelling primates. This adds the question, how much did she use her climbing skills, or were they
purely evolutionary remains from arboreal descendants, is a matter of debate. Although Lucy's hip
and knee joints were not as specialized for a upright posture like humans, she was clearly able of
walking on two feet, although running like a modern human was undoubtedly outside her
capabilities. The size and shape of her ribcage and pelvis indicate that she most likely had a quite
large belly, like a modern ape, evidence to a relatively low–quality, high–bulk diet. Due to her diet
this would of given her a thicker waist, which most likely would have impeded her flexibility,
secondly her high shoulders and the shape of her torso meant she would most likely not of been able
to swing her arms like a human when running. All these answers are due to her skeleton being so
complete; Lucy gave the world an extraordinary picture of her kind. In 1974, she exposed that
human ancestors were up and walking around way before the first stone tools were made, as fossil
finding of much earlier bipedal hominids have deep–rooted that conclusion. Bipedalism, it seems,
was the initial stage towards becoming

Australopithecus Research Paper
The Australopithecus afarensis was a robust, early australopithecine that lived 3 to 3.6 million years
ago (McFarland). The origin of this species name comes from two different factors. The first comes
from the genus name, Australopithecus. This genus means "southern ape" and was originally
developed for a species found in South Africa. The word afarensis is based on the location where
some of the first fossils for this species were first discovered (Dorey). "Lucy" was an Au. afarensis
that was discovered in Afar, Ethiopia 3.2 million years ago and "Dikika Child" was of the same
species that was discovered in Dikika, Ethiopia 3.3 million years ago. Because to these discoveries,
the Au. afarensis is one our best known ancestors due to Lucy's ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Like I stated before regarding the cranium of the Au. afarensis, they have a sagittal crest. The
sagittal crest offers a dock for large chewing muscles in the primate. This has evolved due to the
tough materials that the hominins needed to chew through and the stress that it placed on the skull
while eating. This is also a factor for why robust australopithecines have huge cheek bones. This is
why in the later evolved gracile australopithecines you see the reduction of a sagittal crest.

Ardipithecus Research Paper
Priscilla Hernandez Professor Magginetti ANTH 101 06 May 2018 Article Review #3 Ardipithecus
has been discovered, an Ancestor that dates back prior to the remains of Lucy. In the article written
by Ann Gibbons and others, it dives into the discovery of our most ancient ancestor and the clues
given to us from all 110 remains that have been found of A. ramidus. First let me begin with Lucy
whose remains were found in 1974 and that dated back to 3.2 million years ago. These skeletal
remains gave us the evidence needed to prove that our ancient ancestors were bipedal before
evolving their big brains. After Lucy was discovered the scientist found themselves with even more
questions, such as, were any previous ancestors before Lucy bipedal or did ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
They found that Au. ramidus had very similar characteristics to Sahelanthropus Tchadensis an
ancestor that dates to 6–7 million years ago. Ardi had a foot that was primitive and had an opposable
big toe which was most likely used to grab on branches. She also had a long and curvy spine just
like humans. Its pelvis was large like those of apes and had short and broad shoulders suggesting it
had a lower center of mass and could possibly walk on one leg at a time. But it is also thought that it
was still spending a lot of time in the trees as well. Thus, why it is thought to be intermediate form
of bipedalism it lived in both worlds, walking upright, and climbing trees, equal success in both
biospheres. Although Ardi is not the connection to apes it still served to prove that the ancestor of
apes was a lot more primitive than we believed. There are still several questions to be answered in
this puzzle called our ancestry. It may seem that more questions arise as more clues are found, but
that is science, there would be no intrigue left if all questions were

Evolution : The Ancestor Of Humans
Evolution is the change of an organism, over time the organism have change to be more adapted to
the environment that they are surrounded in order to live. By evolve that mean that their structure
will change, for an example, their skeleton structure however the ancestor skeleton structure are
some what similar to the more recent organisms. For instant, fossil is a great example for evolution,
fossil is the remains of organisms that use to be alive, when scientist examine the fossil they found
that there are similarities between related living organism. There are other evidence for evolution
which are homologous structures, analogous structures, and vestigial structures. Homologous is
when it have a similar structure but different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Then multiply the height, width, and length by .5236 to get the cranial capacity.
Repeat the process for the rest of the skull.
Data table and calculation:
Name
Opisthocranion–opisthion distance (cm) (A)
Opisthocranion–orale distance (cm) (B)
Opisthion index (A/B)x100
Maxillary angle
Height (H)
Width (W)
Length (L)
CC (LxWxH)*.5236
Ardipithecus ramidus
5
14
35.71
80
8.5
10
11
489.57
Australopithecus aethiopicus
4.5
21
21.43

40
10
12
14
879.65
Australopithecus afarensis
3
14.5
20.69
50
10.5
10.5
13
750.45
Australopithecus africanus
6
18
33.33
95
11
9
12.5
647.96
Australopithecus boisei
8
20
40
90
21
15.5
14.5
2471.26
Homo erectus
6.5
19
34.21
95
12.5
12.5
16.5
1349.9
Homo habilis
4
15
26.67
45

10.5
10
13.5
742.2
Homo heidelbergensis
5
17.5
28.57
50
12
12.5
15.5
1217.37
Homo neanderthalensis
7
20.5
34.15
60
14
15
18
141.37
Homo sapiens
8
11
12.7
100
16
14
17
3808
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
4
16.5
24.24
90
9
9.5
15.5
693.9
Observation: In the Homos groups the similarity oare the eyes and the nose, over time the nose hole
is getting bigger and the eyebrows are getting more flat then the ancestors. Also the cheekbones
were getting more into the skull over time. In the Australopithecus groups their face were flat
compared to the homos face and the eyebrows were going out of the skull compared to the homos.

Also the cheekbones were more wider over time. The Sahelanthropus were different to the homos
and to

Bipedal Locomotion in Early Hominids Essay
Bipedal Locomotion in Early Hominids
Until recently, the oldest fossil species to provide evidence for bipedalism was Australopithecus
afarensis, of which the best example of is the 3.2 million year old skeleton called Lucy found in
Hadar, Ethiopia. According to article 19: Sunset at the Savanna, in 1995 Meave Leakey of the
national Museums of Kenya and her colleagues made public the discovery of and older hominid
species Australopithecus anamensis (getting its name from the Turkana word for lake "anam" having
been found near lake Turkana and the site of another ancient lake). Leakey's team found a tibia from
this creature that is quite human like and emphatically bipedal, "in size and practically all details of
the knee and ankle ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We learned in lab last week that the pelvis has features that indicate the mode of locomotion. A
bipedal creature will have an ilium that is short and wide. The leg bones will give clues too. A
bipedal creature has knees that point more directly forward than a quadrapedal creature (this is why
apes look very awkward when they walk bipedally, their legs kick out to the side when they step
forward.) Another skeletal feature that indicates bipedalism is a special design of the anklebones so
that they would be able to take the weight of a bipedal stride. The knee bone of a bipedal hominid
has a special feature too. It has extra spongy bone tissue that acts as a shock absorber when walking.
One feature mentioned in article 20 is a oval hollow at the bottom of the humerus where the
humerus and the ulna lock in place. This is an adaptation to knuckle walking and is not present in
bipedal hominids.
Many theories have been made about what type of paleoecology or paleoecological changes were
the niche for bipedalism. It must have been a strong force since bipedaliam is generally slower and
more awkward than quadrapedal locomotion. It also puts the animal at a greater risk of injury,
according to Owen Lovejoy of Kent State. The current most widely accepted theory is that there was
a continent wide drying up of Africa starting around 5mya. This caused shrinkage of the large
forests to

Museum : Museum Of Kenya
Museum Exhibit: Australopithecus afarensis The National Museum of Kenya seeks to preserve and
share the heritage of past and present Kenya (museum cite). Kenya is located on east Africa, where
numerous of different hominin fossils have been found (O'Neil). The Australopithecus afarensis is
the intermediate ancestor between human and apes (O'Neil). Moreover, the term Australopithecus
means "southern ape" and the term afarensis is based on the location where the first of its kind were
found, in Ethiopia, Africa (Australian Museum). Over 300 of the Australopithecus afarensis
fossilized remains have been found in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Tanzania (Smithsonian National
Museum of Natural History). The new exhibit at the National Museum of Kenya, seeks to showcase
and share information on the remains of an Australopithecus afarensis found in Olduvai George,
Tanzania. The remains consist of three teeth and one leg bone. The exhibit explains how the three
teeth and leg bone became fossils, how they were found and dated using different dating techniques,
and how they are being preserved and conserved in the museum. Fossils tell the story of the Earth,
and the organisms that lived before us. Fossils are the preserved remains of once living organisms
(Stanford 222). Some are hard parts such as bones and teeth, others are trace fossils, such as burrows
or trails, and lastly there are natural casts, such as molds and impressions (Breithaupt). Fossils are
preserved by being buried under

The Australopithecus Afarensis
The Australopithecus afarensis believed to have been around in the 3.8 and 3.0 m.y.a. This is thanks
to fossils found in two sites, Laetoli in the north of Tanzania and Hadar in the far region of Ethiopia.
The fossil most well know is Hadar's this is because that fossil is actual "Lucy" identified by
Discovered by Donald Johanson and Tom Gray in 1974 at Hadar. While they only discovered 40%
of "Lucy's" whole skeleton it was far more than Laetoli's few remains of teeth and jaw fragments. I
find it amazing how the fossils were so well preserved that they lasted so long. It's a miracle that
they were able to produce 40% of the skeleton many fossils that were found weren't as big. "Lucy"
is very small for her species only 3'6" tall and weighing around 62 lbs. It was also observed that she
was bipedal thanks to her pelvis, femur, and tibia. This was all discovered in 1974, Donald Johanson
also discovered "the First Family" a year after. It was the remains of 13 individuals varied in ages,
the males were larger than the females. There was also scientist that theorizes "the First Family" was
more than one species. Both discoveries show that the fossils were around 3.2 million years old. I
find it amazing how the fossils were so well preserved that they lasted so long. ... Show more
This also helped with understanding how the A.afarensis lived and survived but also come to
separate into gracile, robust, and hyper–robust. While we can see that "Lucy" spent more of her time
up in the trees from how her proportions show that she is more ape–like than we modern humans
are. Then with discovering "the First Family" we get not only a window of how A.afarensis as a
family but maybe how they interact with those of different species. Though it does look like it's not
fully clear if they are A. afarensis I think that has more to do with if all of them are of this

“Lucy and Ardi: Beginning of Human Origins”
Ramchandra Rana
March 1, 2012
World Civilizations 101– Dr. James LePree
"Lucy and Ardi: Beginning of Human Origins"
Many people often consider our first milestone in life to be our first step. It is the beginning of many
important developments as an individual. It was also the beginning of our development as a species.
Dr. Donald Johanson and Dr. Tim White discovered two of the most amazing specimens that would
be the stepping–stones to the beginning of evolutionary development. Australopithecus Afarensis
(Lucy) and Ardipithecus Ramidus (Ardi) were the first fossils found in Africa that showed signs of
early evolutionary development that is connected to Homo sapiens in the evolutionary tree. Lucy
and Ardi are important to our ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ardi moved in the trees using a grasping big toe, yet her pelvis was shorter and broader than an
ape's, indicating that she could walk bipedally. There were many pieces of evidence that proved
Australopithecus afarensis to have been walking upright for thousands of years. Dr. Don Johanson
brought up human like characteristics in Lucy's bones that indicated she walked upright. One of
Lucy's most striking characteristics was her knee joint, which indicated that she normally moved by
walking upright. Her greater trochanter, however, was clearly derived, being short and human–like
rather taller than the femoral head (Lovejoy). Another piece of evidence that proves Lucy walked
upright was the formation of her pelvis. Her pelvis and leg bones were almost identical in function
to those of modern humans, showing with certainty that these hominids had walked bipedally.
The third piece of evidence that made it undoubtedly that Australopithecus afarensis walked upright
was the footprints found at Laetoli in northern Tanzania. In 1976, Mary Leakey discovered hominid
footprints that was preserved in volcanic ash and unearthed 1978. "The Laetoli Footprints" and
skeletal structure excavated showed clear evidence of bipedalism. Many believe the three
individuals who made these footprints belonged to the species Australopithecus afarensis. The
footprints demonstrated that Australopithecus afarensis walked upright

Morphology: Hominins
Morphology: Discovered in 1974 by paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson, A. afarensis was an
early bipedal species of hominin that possessed several features similar to both apes and humans.
The discovery was made while driving back to camp when Donald spotted a right proximal ulna
(forearm) and identified it to belong to a hominid. Within minutes of excavation, he discovered the
skull, several ribs, a femur, pelvis, lower jaw and several other fragmented bones. Roughly 40% of
the total skeleton was recovered in total. The specimen was named lucy after the popular song by
the beatles "Lucy in the sky with diamonds" as it was one of the few tapes Donald and his crew had
brought to listen to. This species has been derived to be both comfortable ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
With smaller brain size came less complex development and thus shorter periods of brain
development. The lifespan of these hominids was projected to be much shorter than our own owing
to several factors apart from centralized medicine and uncomfortable living conditions. Lucy, the
first discovered A. afarensis, died around age 12. While she was a fully grown adult at this point due
to a difference in maturity rate, that is still comparably young. Other members of this species were
found to have comparably early ages of death to humans while still older than Lucy. Age of death
can be determined by examining the third molars to see if they have erupted yet. The ends of her
bones and cranial sutures (expansion joints) had all sealed up as well, indicating full

Australopithecus Afarensis
In recent years, anthropologists have made incredible work in discovering all the different kinds of
human species. The discovery of a certain human species, the Australopithecus Afarensis, was
mostly credited to the finding of a single individual, AL 288–1, or "Lucy." She has helped
anthropologists to understand the diet, anatomy, environment, sexual dimorphism, the technology or
tools used during their time, and bipedalism of this early hominin. The evolution of humans is
interesting due to the questions we are trying to find and the answers we might never find. While
investigating the mysteries behind Australopithecus Afarensis, it may shine some light on how
closely related to this ancestor species. Humans created a theory that millions ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
This earlier hominin was between a mixture of human–like traits and ape–like traits. Sexual
dimorphism plays a role in ape–like features such as pointed canines that were longer than the rest
of the teeth and a diastema for their canines that are not seen in modern today humans. Their enamel
in their teeth is thick indicating that they feed on rough objects like plants, nuts, and seeds. It is
believed with the little evidence of Australopithecus Afarensis, that the skeletal size was affected by
sexual dimorphism as well. Body size and body mass change in inter–male competition (Kimbel &
Delezene, 2009). A couple of human–like traits is the position of the foramen magnum that moved
under the bottom of the skull. Their pelvis is another human–like feature that is in length and height.
The pelvis is short and broad, but it does not possess the modifications that allowed them to move in
an average stride. Their pelvis is another human–like feature that is in length and height. Ape–like
traits insist of fore limbs that are longer than their hind limbs with shoulder blade sockets that were
positioned upward because their closest relative were brachiators. Australopithecus Afarensis'
cognitive abilities fall unexplained but some evidence has shown they were able to take hold of
rough stone tools (Szpak, 2007). Their rib cage was shaped like a cone because it gave more space
for a larger stomach. The size of their brain was small relatively like a chimpanzee's and a low
forehead with projecting brow ridges. Also, obtaining a small hyoid that supported the tongue and
voice box resulting with a voice like a chimpanzee. Ape–like cusps in the premolar teeth and one big
cusp in the front premolar. Furthermore, this gave Australopithecus Afarensis the ability to climb
trees due to these ape–like characteristics. In addition to human–like traits, the size and pattern of
the back–molar teeth which the size

The Evolution of Modern Humans
While time travel still remains elusive to us, scientists have been able to discover things about our
past as a species that were practically inconceivable over 150 years ago when Charles Darwin
released his book entitled The Origin of Species. They have especially uncovered many pieces to
our still incomplete puzzle over the past 20 years so that we now have a nearly complete idea of
how our species Homo sapiens came to be. This story of our history includes dozens of species' and
hundreds of fossils and bones, yet fairly few complete or even partial skeletons. Hominids have
gone through many changes to get from one of our earliest species' Ardipithecus ramidus to Homo
sapiens which scientists have been able to discover ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The lower part, where it meets the ankle, is fairly wide and thick so it acted as a "shock absorber"
whilst walking. Members of the Australopithecus anamensis species also had long forearms and
wrist bone features which suggest tree climbing. They were thickly–built with long narrow jaws.
Their side rows of teeth were in parallel lines and were heavily enameled which entails that they ate
hard, abrasive foods such as nuts, but researchers also believe that they also ate fruits. These
hominids were possibly the size of modern female chimpanzees and there is evidence of sexual
dimorphism. (Leakey et al, 1995; White et al, 2006) Discovered in 1974, Australopithecus afarensis
is one of the most famous early hominids and they are the direct descendants of Australopithecus
anamensis. Australopithecus afarensis as a species was not named until 1978, after many fossil
discoveries of the same type were found at sites in Hadar, Ethiopia and Laetoli, Tanzania. Some of
the fossils categorized as a part of this species were found as early as in the 1930's. They were
around for more than 900,000 years which makes them the longest lived species and there are over
300 sets of remains of Australopithecus afarensis. One of the most famous hominid skeletons is 3.2
million year old "Lucy" (AL 288–1), discovered by Donald Johanson and Maurice Taieb in Hadar,
Ethiopia in 1974. She was nicknamed the night she was discovered

Ardipithecus Research Paper
Ardipithecus and other early Australopithecines lived in a habitat much wetter than the environment
of Aramis, Ethiopia today. The set for scene one could at times experience a "rain fall," and should
include a woodland habitat with patches of denser forest and an abundant amount of monkeys just as
what would have been seen between five and three million years ago. In 1992, an expedition led by
Tim White of the University of California, Berkeley discovered the fossil of Ardipithecus ramidus,
dating back to 4.4 million years ago. The skeleton nicknamed "Ardi" ended up weighing around 112
pounds, stood almost four feet tall, (somewhat larger than a male chimpanzee but smaller than a
female gorilla) and was most likely a female. Ardi's ape sized brain has a cranial capacity of only
300 to 350 CC. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The size of Ardi's teeth and the U–shaped dental arcade is also similar to that of a chimpanzee,
however, Ardi's incisors were slightly smaller. A large amount of commonalities with chimpanzees
may make a living, trained, male chimpanzee the best and cheapest option to play the role of
Ardipithecus ramidus. The special effects crew could utilize CGI in order to alter the structure of the
chimpanzee's face in close up shots. White's research team found little sexual dimorphism present
between male and female Ar. ramidus' based off the only slight differentiation in tooth size. The
scene might then only include hominins relatively close in size. Ardipithecus ramidus most likely
lived in a community similar to the social structure of chimpanzees, comprised of adult males and
females and their offspring. Anthropologist Owen Lovejoy believes that there was even an
intensified male parental

Lucy, The Gem Of Ethiopia
Nicky Yoong
Period 4
Lucy, the Gem of Ethiopia
Introduction
As humans we strive to learn about our past, present, and future. It doesn't matter where you live or
who you are; you have that urge, that indescribable feeling, to know who you are and where you
came from. The best place and probably the most well known place to discover the past is Africa,
which harbors one of the biggest archaeology sites in the world the Great Rift Valley. Archaeology
in Africa is divided into two groups. One is the study of ancient civilizations like Egypt or the Mali
Empire. The other is finding human origins and how we evolved from primitive mammals. We have
fossil records of humans that date back millions of years which tell us of ancient humans and our
evolution to become homo sapiens. The most famous of these pre–humans is Lucy or Dinkenesh
which is the Ethiopian word for "she is wonderful."
Who is Lucy?
Named after the Beatles song, "Lucy in the Sky without Diamonds," Lucy is an ancient, fossil of
australopithecus afarensis, one of our predecessors. Lucy is 40% of fossilized skeleton of a three
foot six, fifty pound female who roamed the Great Rift Valley 3.2 million years ago. Lucy's male
counterparts were 5 feet and around 105 pounds. This difference in size between the males and
females is called sexual dimorphism and it happens in a lot of ancient and modern animals. Lucy
was found in Hadar (a dig site) 217 miles away from Addis Ababa the capital of Ethiopia. Donald

The Earth Has Never Stopped Revolving Ever Since It Had...
The Earth has never stopped revolving ever since it had existed. About 2.5 billion years ago during
the Proterozoic Eon to the Cenozoic era in which we live in today, a single–celled organism was
able to evolve into many cells, which led to dinosaurs, mammals, primates, and many other
organisms. Not only did the animals evolved, our ancestors did too! They had passed on their genes
and traits as well as new ones to create the human–being we are today. We didn 't start out like this.
Millions of years ago, the human 's ancestors were not bipedal because fossils have showed that
their legs were too far apart, which meant that they would be all wobbly if they had stood and
walked upright. A primate would need to have their legs closer ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Donald Johanson, a paleoanthropologist, found a 3.2 million year old fossil in Africa Ethiopia. Lucy,
an Australopithecus afarensis, was believed to be the first human–like ancestor who died at the age
of three. According to Johanson, Lucy was a biped. We know that she walked upright because the
shaft of her leg is angled, which is similar to a human 's knee joints. Why did our ancestors evolve
from walking on four legs to walking on two? One theory was about the climate. Some scientists
believe that because our ancestor 's homes in the trees were being destroyed due to the climate
change, our ancestors had to walk more to get to their destination. If they didn 't walk fast enough,
they would become a prey. With that, our ancestors developed the trait to walk on two legs. That
theory is proven wrong, thanks to a recent discovery of a 4.4 million year old fossil. Ardi, an
Ardipithecus ramidus, was a human–like ancestor before Lucy 's time. According to her fossils, Ardi
was bipedal because she had feet both great for grasping and walking. Her knuckles or wrist showed
no signs of her walking on four. The upper part of her pelvis, in which the hip bone is short and
broad, is similar to a human 's, but the lower part is longer than a human 's, which was more useful
for climbing. According to that fact, we know that Ardi was a biped and a tree–climber. Because her

Lucy Family Tree
The most famous member of the human family tree was a fossil named "Lucy". Lucy was a fossil
discovered in 1974, and named after the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds". "Lucy
lived some 3.2 million years ago. She belonged to the species Australopithecusafarensis" ( Bower)
Lucy was a hominid, that means she came from the same family as our most recent ancient relatives
and humans. The reason for being such a famous member of the family tree is because it is one of
the few full skeletons of our most recent ancient relatives. Lucy plays a great role in our study of
human evolution. A recent study has revealed how we think Lucy died 3.2 million years ago. We
now believe that Lucy fell to her death from a large tree. The studies show ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
William Jungers is one of those people and he is a paleoanthropologist at Stony Brook Medical
Center in New York. "But the evidence indeed points to a fatal fall, he now argues. No other
explanation can account for Lucy's pattern of bone damage." (Bower) They are arguing that the
cracks in the shoulder are from fossilization and the other cracks are from the fatal falls. Either way
there is no way without traveling back 3.2 million years to tell what Lucy's cause of death was so it
is all what you think and

Psy 201 Week 1 Evolution Research Paper
According to Ms. Witsaman, evolution is not the theory of how life began, which is a common
misconception nowadays, but the theory of how life has changed over time. Theories are predictions
which are backed up by several evidences and supported by scientists. The evidences that scientists
use now to prove include fossils, homologous structures, analogous structures, vestigial structures,
embryology, biogeography, and biochemicals. Fossils are the remains of living things that once
roamed the Earth. Homologous structure are structures shared by different organisms that have
similar structure but different functions. Analogous structures are the opposite, they have similar
functions but completely different structure.Vestigial structures are ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
I have to assume that the skulls that were closest to walking on four legs lived in environments with
a lot of trees and high grounds. That being said, now I have to assume that our ancestors eventually
found it easier to live in long plains and migrated which made them lose the need to be efficient on
all fours, thus leading to bipedalism.
Conclusion:
My hypothesis is was not supported since there was not a single organism that walked on four legs
according to my data. I realized that just the general shape and condition of the skull didn't correlate
with how old it was, but the cranial capacity was the major determining factor. Every time humans
evolved the need for their mental capacity increased and that's evident in the skulls: the oldest
having the smallest cranial capacity, the most recent having the largest cranial capacity. I also want
to say that according to my data, our ancestors didn't all just start walking on two legs one day, but
the need to walk on two legs wasn't there for a couple of our ancestors which is why some are so
close to not being able to walk on two legs at all. That leads me to say that bipedalism was not
dependant on when an organism was alive but where an organism was alive. As for prognathism, I
also believe that

Who Is Lucy Hominid
Lucy is the nickname given to "the world's most famous human ancestor." (National Geographic
News) Lucy was found on November 24, 1974 in Hardar, Ethiopia by paleontologists Tom Gray and
Donald Johanson. While Lucy may not be the earliest human ancestor she is the first
Australopithecus afarensis skeleton found, with her remains being 3.2 million years old.
Lucy's nickname was inspired by the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. While it is
unsure who exactly gave this 3.2 million year old skeleton the nickname Lucy, it stuck and the
skeleton has been referred to as Lucy ever since. Lucy has been identified as a hominid because she
walked upright, which is one of the foremost characteristics of the zoological family Hominidae.
Hominidae

Australopithecus Research Paper
Discovery
Australopithecus afarensis was discovered in Ethiopia on November 24, 1974 by
paleoanthropologists Donald Johanson, Maurice Taieb, Yves Coppens, and Tom Gray in the Afar
Depression in Ethiopia, Africa. The first fossil was found by Johanson in '71 when he discovered a
shinbone and femur. They returned in 1974 and the team found several hundred fragments of bones
all belonging to a single individual. The individual was deemed to be a female based on the width of
the pelvic opening. The fossil samples were argon–argon dated by Robert Walter in 1992 and it was
determined that "she" was approximately 3.22–3.18 million years old. The species itself lived
between 3.85 and 2.95 million years ago. This specimen was named "Lucy" after the ... Show more
Characteristics
Male Australopithecines are on average 4'11" and weigh about 94 pounds while females average
3'5" and weigh close to 64 pounds. The most notable characteristic of Lucy was found in her knee,
which indicated that the species walked upright or was bipedal. Lucy's limb proportions also provide
insight to her bipedality. Human's hind limbs (legs) are longer than their fore limbs (arms). The ratio
between arms and legs is called an intermembral index. The average intermembral index for humans
is between 68–70", while chimpanzees fall around 106". Lucy's intermembral index is 88", which
falls between both. This suggests that A. afarensis probably walked on the ground with hind limbs
and climbed in trees with fore limbs. Lucy's pelvic blades are human–like in that they are short and
curved forward, making the case for bipedality while on the ground. The location of Lucy's
shoulder, however, provides insight that she spent time climbing in trees. Furthermore, Lucy's
sacrum is wide and short at the top and goes in laterally like in humans. A wider and shorter sacrum
is better for distributing weight through the pelvis. This follows with bipedal theories because this
shaped sacrum is better

Lucy, discovered by Donald C. Johanson and Tom Gray, is...
Lucy
The discovery of Lucy is our oldest and most complete human ancestor. She is less than 3.8 million
years old hominid of Australopithecus afarensis, which was discovered in November 24, 1974 by
Donald C. Johanson and Tom Gray in the Hadar region of Ethiopia.
They named her Lucy in reference to the well–known Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with
Diamonds", which played over and over as they celebrated their findings.
This uncovering of Lucy was very fascinating and answered many questions to our human
evolution.The search for human ancestry has been ongoing for the past century since the publication
of Charles Darwin's "Origins of the Species". As more evidence about the 'branches' of the
evolutionary tree of many distinct animals and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The joint could "lock", suggesting the animal could walk upright. This was an important discovery
showing an ancient bipedal creature. If the bones' age was consistent with Johanson's hypothesized
"missing link", it would serve as supporting evidence to Johanson's theory.
Lucy's entire skeleton was found about two and a half kilometers from the site in which the bipedal
knee joint was found. The conclusion that both fossils originate from the same species is
questionable, and might have been influenced by Johanson's pre–existing biases. While only forty
percent of the skeleton was found.
The scientist predict that Lucy is at least 20 years old because her wisdom teeth had fully come in.
Her head looked primitive and her brain was not much bigger than a chimpanzee's. She was an ape
with a human looking body but underdeveloped skull and brain. We obviously still had a long way
to come in the 3.18 million years between then and now, but Lucy already showed clear differences
from the normal apes. The shape of her hip bones and her upright posture means that Lucy is closer
to us than the chimpanzee. Knowing that Lucy could walk on two legs and was about 3'6'' tall.
The habitat is predicted a mix of woodland, where they hunt for food on the ground and in trees,
along with more open areas where they would have walked upright. Evidence from their teeth
suggest that this hominine ate soft fruits and leaves but was also adapted to eat harder, more brittle

What Australopithecus Afarensis Skeleton Known As `` Lucy...
Multiple Choice: 1. (D) – Donald Johanson discovered the australopithecus afarensis skeleton
known as "Lucy". "Lucy" was named as such after the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky With
Diamonds", as it had been playing in the expedition camp. Using a famous song to name the
skeleton increased public awareness of early humans and evolution studies. Donald Johanson's
discovery allowed researchers a much better understanding of what australopithecus afarensis
looked like. 2. (D) – A specialist in the study of early civilization and early humans is known as a
paleoanthropologist. This makes sense as the root of the word paleoanthropologist is the Greek
"palaeos" (old/ancient), and "anthrōpos" (man). As such, paleontologist is a person who studies
ancient man, which would cover both early humans and early civilizations. 3. (B) – The
recognizable remains of a plant or animal are known as fossils. Unlike artifacts, fossils are not made
by man and instead come from living things. Those who study fossils are known as paleontologists.
The word "fossil" comes from the Latin word "fossilis", which means "found by digging". 4. (D) –
Charles Darwin wrote "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection", published in 1859.
His book explained the theory of evolution, and the process of natural selection. Darwin's work was
met with much dissent at the time of its release, as what he proposes directly conflicts with many
Christian beliefs on the creation of the world. Today, the

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