It is an introduction to Archaeology and the recovery of social history of India through Archaeological sources. In this presentation i only sad about Prehistoy, Protohistory and Early History of India through Archaeological sources. I hope it will help you all to know more about archaeology and early history of India.

1. An Introduction to Archaeology &
Indian Social
Past
(Pre-History _ Early Historical Age)
BY-
Shubham Rajak
Deccan College Postgraduate & Research Institute, Pune
A. I.H. C & Archaeology, VISVA- BHARATI University, Santineketan
Center for Archaeological Studies & Training, Eastern India (C.A.S.T.E.I), Kolkata

2. Contents
Introductory
1 Archaeology and our area of study-
2 An introduction to Chronology of Indian
Pre- History to Early History
Archaeological Artifacts for understanding Pre-Historical Society
3 Indian Rock Art : Picture of Past
4 Lithic Industry : An introduction of development of Stone Tools & daily life
Hunting to Introduction of Farming
5 Neolithic Revolution and Farming Society
Chalcolithic culter and beging of urban society
6 Harappan Culture and Society
7 Understanding society by Terracotta Art
8 Understanding society by Burial System
9 Cemetery-H Culture : Understanding The Late Harappan Society and social belief system
Society in Iron Age and Early Historical Period
10 Growth of society in Copper Hoard Culture
11 Megalithic Culture of Iron Age and Early Historical Period
12 Society of Earl Historical Age
Conclusion

3. 1 Archaeology and our area of study-
It is a multi disciplinary scientific study of human past through
material remains and cultural footprint.
In Archaeology material remains range from grand palaces and
temple to small discarded products of everyday human activity
such as broken pieces of pottery.
Archaeological remains can be two types-
1. Artifacts
2. Ecofacts
Here in our subject matter we will only discuss about those
Archaeological remains which help us to understand Indian
Socio-Economic and cultural history. We will only discuss on
Indian Pre-History , Proto- History and Early Historical age.
As we know that in this time period we have not any kind of
literary abidance so only through Archaeological Sources we can
reconstruct social and cultural past.

4. 2 Chronology of study in Archaeology
Pre- Historical Age-
Lower Paleolithic , 4-1 MYA
Middle Paleolithic, 150,000 BP
Upper Paleolithic , 25,000-19,000 BP
Mesolithic Culture,
Neolithic Culture
Chalcolithic Culture
late Chalcolithic Culture (introduction of iron)
Iron Age ( With OCP , PCW & BSW)
Early Historical Culture ( With NBPW & RCW )

5. 3 Indian Rock Art : Picture of Past
In Archaeology, Rock Art is Human made markings place on natural rock surface, it is largely
synonymous with parietal art and cultural Ethnic art. Majority of rock art that has been
ethnographically recorded has been produced as a part of ritual.
The earliest discovery of pre-historical rock art in India was made by Archibald Carlleyle an
assistant surveyor of A.S.I. at Sohagihat in the Kaimur hill ,Mirzapur District of U.P in 1867-
1868.
Type Of Archaeological Rock Art –
1. Pictographs / Petrgleph - Cave Paintings
2. Petroglyphs / Spetoghraph – Carving , Cutting and etching
Rock Art is an Important Archaeological Mark of Pre-Historical Life. It allow us to know
and understand the rich cultural heritage of a region from the Pre-Historical to
Contemporary. It delineates the possible routes of human mobility and evolution in
cultural and Social life.
Important Rock ART Site in India
1 Bhimbetka, M.P ( 7,790_+220 BP) (1,100_+60 BP)
2 Adamgarh, Narmada Valley, M.P ( 7450_+130 BP) (2865_+105 BP)
3 Panchmarhi, M.P (Middle Paleolithic – Mesolithic/Neolithic )
4 Satpahar, Hazaribagh , Jharkhand
5 Isko , Hazaribagh , Jharkhand
6 Khandhar, Hazaribagh , Jharkhand
7 Sidpa , Chatra, Jharkhand
8 Nautangwa, Chatra, Jharkhand

6. Stages of Rock Art-
1. Early level of figurines representing hunting-gathering and figuring of
wildlife.
2. Marginal stage of food collecting, group-hunting and beginning of pastoral
economy.
3. full-fledged pastoral society with magical belief and aspiration for breeding
of domestic animals.
4. Betel stage.

7. Rock Salter Site of Bhimbatka, M.P
(A.S.I. & U.N.E.S.C.O World Heritage site)

8. Hunting & Wild Life Image

9. 4 Lithic Industry : An introduction of development of Stone
Tools & daily life
Stone tools are an important key to understanding the lives of pre-historical humans. It is
such type of artifact witch was used by pre-historic human in there daily life. If we try to
understand the development of stone tools then we can also interpret the life style of pre-
historical age.
In Indian Archaeology we have 5 type of Stone tools for understanding cultural footprint-
1. Lower Palaeolithic tools - Early Palaeolithic tools were fairly large core tools made of
quartzite or Pebble or other hard rock, they include chopping tools, Pebble handaxes,
Cleaver. Specially Acheulian type.
Sites- Siwaliks hills, Dina and Jalalpur in Jhelum basin, Didwana in Rajasthan, Hiran
valley, Belan Valley in U.P., Attirampakkam in Tamil Nadu and river valley and foothills of
Chhotanagpur Plateau in Jharkhand.

11. 2 Middle Palaeolihic tools - These tools are Smaller and fine the lower palaeolithic
tools. These lighter flake tools made by Levallois techinque . example – Convex
side sraper, Denticulated tool, Knife-on-flake, Angle scraper and Borers.
Sites- Nevasa, Lalpi in U.P. , Bhimbatka in M.P., Nandipalli in cuddapah district,
Susunia in West Bengal and Hazaribagh , Jharkhand

12. 3. Upper Palaeolithic Tools – The trend was towards smaller tools, there was also an I increase in
the number of burins and introduction of Points and blade in flake tools. Example- Backed Blade,
Denticulated blades, End Scraper and Point-on-Blade.
Sites- Chopani Mando in Belan valley, Baghor III in Son valley, Kurnool cave in U.P, Ayodhya hills in W.B
and Damin area of the Rajmahal Hills of Jharkhand.
.

14. 4. Microliths / Tools of Mesolithic age – Microlithics range in length from under 1cm-8cm.
These are most smaller and finest tools for small works. Example- Triangle, Double sided
blade, Arrowhead, Lunates, Harpoon mounted with triangles.
Sites- Birbhanpur in West Bengal, Didwana in Rajasthan, Bhimbatka in M.P. ,Mahadaha
and Damdama in U.P. , Langhnaj in South India and Bagor in Rajasthan.

15. 5. Neolithic Tools – Most Finest and well polishes stone tools which use as the early
farming tools. Like – Ring stone, Shouldered Celts, Celt , Pick, Adze , Mace and Triangular
Axes.
Sites- Burzhaom and Gufkral in Kashmir valley, Maharghard, Ganeshwar-Jodpur culture in
Rajasthan, Ahar(Period I) and Balathal(Period I) in Rajasthan ,Daimabad in Deccan,
Chechar-Kutubpur (Phase A,B and C) and Senuar(Period IA) in Bihar

17. Starting of Agriculture
Most of Archaeologist
believe that
Agriculture was
started from Neolithic
period. We also have
archaeological
abidance to prove this
theory, Neolithic sites
like Mahargarh and
Catal Huke have early
abidance of
Agricultural land.
From the excavation
at these sites we also
found wattle & dub
structure and hand
made turntable
pottery which was
used for storage.

18. 6 Harappan Culture and Society
1. This was the beginning of urbanism in the Indian subcontinent. For the 1st time in the history
of this region. There is evidence for many different communities living together within large
cities.
2. In the Mature Harappan period most of the large cities where divided into 2 parts . 1st part
called lower town which is large in size and 2nd one is called high citadel mound . It indicate
the social difference within the cities.
3. An average of mud brick and baked brick is 7×14×28cm was used in house construction. And
10×20×40cm brick was used in building of city wall. It shows the uniformity of Architectural
and life style in lower town.
4. In the different excavations we found many large buildings which may be public place or
some thing for public use like- Great Bath, Granaries in site of Mohenjo-daro.
5. We found some group of houses or public buildings were built close together with shared
walls and formed large blocks that were bordered by streets.
6. Lothal was an important Harappan site which had port to help trading activities.
7. In excavation we have not still found any kind of buildings for worship in this case we can
only say that Harappan peoples were nature worshipers.
8. The worship of trees as sacred spaces and symbols probably has its origins at the dawn of
human society. Pipal motifs has found in Harappan potteries. The use of Pipal three as a
religious symbol appears to have discrete regional variations. At the Mohenjo-daro the deity
is always standing in the midst of the tree, while at Harappa the deity is standing beneath an
arch made of leaves.

20. Ring Wells from Mohenjo-daro.
Excavation picture

21. Ring wall and buildings

22. 7 Understanding Harappan society by
Terracotta Art
From the excavation of Harappan
sites we have found a large no. of
terracotta figurines, which help us to
know about the people and society of
Harappan Period.
Position of women in Harappan
Society- Terracotta figurines of
women predominate in most of the
sites and powerful female deities
are depicted on seals along with
male . these indicators suggest that
some women of the cities may have
had important social and ritual
position. But I can say that society
were also male dominated.

23. The importance of females as symbols of
religion is supported by the fact that
figurines of women or mother goddesses
are more common then male figurines.
In the recent excavations on mound ET
Harappa, we found a broken figurine of a
women with the large fan-shaped
headdress lying on beads.

24. Harappan Men- Figurines of men are not
as varied those of the women but do
reflect several different styles of personal
ornaments or headbands. Some
terracotta figurines usually bare headed.
Seated Male figurine from
Harappa.
Priest King sculpture which wears an armband on
left upper arms. Sculpture of Priest King was found
Mohanjo-daro.

25. Trade and Transport -
This Harappan Terracotta art help us to
understand the transportation and trade
system in Harappan period.
One of the important aspects of Harappan
trade is the identification of the sources of
major raw materials used by Harappans.
The discovery of factory site in lime stone
hills of Sukkur and Rohri indicates that chert
blades were mass produced here and sent
to various Harappan settlements in Sind.
The Khetri deposit of Rajasthan must have
been an important source of copper at that
time also.
Two-wheeled carts and bullock carts were
mode of land transport for people and
goods. Some bronze and terracotta models
of carts have been found at various sites.
Bout are depicted on seals and molded
tablets , some clay models found from
Harappa and Lothal.
Harappan terracotta model of bullock carts, National
Museum.

26. 8 Understanding society by Burial
System
The burials of Harappan people provide the direct evidence for specific
rituals and religious beliefs. Simple grave offerings of pottery suggest a
belief in life after death. The coffin burials may be belong to the standard
among elite communities.
Scattered burials, as well as discrete cemeteries, have been found at sites
regions, but most cemeteries are small and do not represent all local
inhabitation. It is possible that only certain groups practiced burial while
others were disposed by other means.
The cemetery of Harappa appears to have been used by a limited group.,
possibly all belonging to a single kinship group or clan. There were buried
one top of the other, and the later buried often cut through the grave of
earlier individuals. This pattern suggest that the burial ground itself was
possibly a sacred place and that all members of a single group wanted to
be buried close together.

27. Late harappan buria with grave goods
Site – Kalibangan, Rajasthan.
In this Chalcolithic – late Chalcolithic Period
we fond different kind of grave like -
1 fractional burial
2 flexed burials
3 Urn burials
1 fractional burial

28. Flexed Burials
Urn Burials

29. Urn burials

30. 9 Cemetery-H Culture : Understanding The Late Harappan Society
and social belief system
The Cemetery –H urns bear naturalistic designs
( leaves, trees, stare, animals), but also an
interesting series of what seem o be
mythological motifs. Latter include peacocks
with a human drawn in the middle, and bull
with plantlike attachment to their horns. These
scenes have been interpreted in various ways.
Some scholars have tried to connect them the
ideas of death and afterlife in Vedas.
Prof. M.R. Mughal’s study of Bahawalpur area
indicates changes in the number, frequency of
the settlement in Chmetery-H, Late Harappan
phase . Although there were some fairly large
settlement like Kudwala 31.1 ha, but most of
the site were small, under 5 ha.
Ceramics of Cemetery-H culture is most
important source for understanding social life
of the people.
Sites- Lundewali II, Shahiwala, Gamuwala Ther.

32. Cemetery –H, Late Harappan burials
Excavation on Cemetery-H
culture

33. 10 Growth of society in Copper Hoard
Culture
After the Harappan culture in western part of the Indian subcontinent another type of culture
emerge in Upper Ganga valley and Eastern India, which is called Copper Hoard Culture. In 1822,
a copper harpoon was 1st discovered at Bithur, Kanpur.
It is very rare type of Industry which have copper implements with Black & Red Ware. But these
copper implements ate totally different then those copper implements which we found in
chalcolithic phase. But these copper findings are bigger in size and more functional then those
findings which we found in chalcolithic phase.
Most of Archaeologists believe that these such big copper material might be used as Agricultural
tools or fighting tools. But from my opinion it might be used as Agricultural tools. It shows that
in this particular time period agriculture were developing in Doab region of Ganga Valley.
Copper Hoards found in Bihar and West Bengal may in fact belonging to the historical period.
The site of Sanauli and Khurdi has recently yielded two antennae swords of Copper Hoard types
in a Late Harappan context.
The Archaeological evidence of Copper hoards suggests that between the mid-2nd and 1st
millennium BCE the upper Ganga Valley had emerged as a distinct copper-manufacturing area
and very well developing agricultural zone, with interactions extending into the region of
Haryana, Gujarat, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Rajasthan and most important U.P.

34. Type of Copper Hoard Artifacts
1. Anthropomorphic figure
2. Harpoons
3. Shouldered celt
4. Hooked Spearhead
5. Celt
6. Antennae Sword
7. Hatchet
Antennae Sword

35. Black & Red Ware associated with Copper Hoard Culture

36. 11 Megalithic Culture of Iron Age and
Early Historical Period
The word Megalith come from two Greek words, mega meaning big and lithos mean
stone. Megaliths include different kind of big stone monument which was used as
cemetery. These cemeteries are related with Iron age to early historical age. The
term megalithic culture refers to the to the cultural remains found in the megaliths
and from the habitation sites associated with them.
Megaliths reflect certain burial styles that emerged at different times in different
places and continued for quite some time.
In Indian subcontinent megaliths in south India for example- Watgal (Neolith- Iron
Age) ,Deccan plateau ( Early Historical) , Jharkhand, North East India.
From these Archaeological evidences we can interpret social relationship and belief
system. We can say that these Megalith cemeteries show a social unity and uniform
belief system of burial practice . Those potteries which are found in these sites show
that they were agriculturist community with belief of ancestor worship and life after
death.

37. Types of Megaliths-
1. Menhir
2. Stone aligment
3. Cairn circle
4. Hood Stones
5. Multiple Hood Stones
6. Rock-cut Cave
7. Port hole cist
8. Topikal
Menhir Multiple Hood Stones
Cairn Circle

38. 12 Society of Earl Historical Age
This is a turning point of Pre-Historical phase
to Historical phase. It is time of new cities and
development of big social community then
early times. In this time we can see the
growth of trade and commerce in a large
geographical area.
Status of women - From different excavations
we have found a large number of terracotta
figurines of women which is far more
decorated then early phase. These figurines
are very well ornamented specifically the hair-
dress. These figurines shows prosperity of
women is society but it may be possible that
these figurines are related with futility
culture.

39. Trade in Early Historical Period –
The period of Early History specially in between
c.300 BCE – 300 AD. saw a significant expansion
of trade activities both within the subcontinent
and between the subcontinent. Trade is one of
the region for development of new settlements in
this point of time.
Trade continued to ply along the Uttarapatha and
Dakshinapatha. The Uttarapatha connected Taxila
in north-west with Tamralipti in the Ganga delta of
west-bengal. Routes connected Ujjayini in Malwa
with Bharukachchha and Supparaka on the
western cost.
During this period we can see great development
of maritime trade. Marine Archaeology has
brought to light important evidence of ancient
coastal cities that have been swallowed up by sea.
Excavation at Dwarka and Bet Dwarka off the
Gujarat coast have revealed remains of structures,
object of copper and iron anchors.
From the excavation of Arikamedu, Tamralipti,
Kaviripattanam we found a lot of Maritime Ware
which was used to brought the wine from the
west.

40. Understanding Early Historical society of
Chandraketugarh-
Chandraketugarh, located in the Ganga delta in 24 Pargana
district of West-Bengal, about 25 miles north-east of
Kolkata.
In the early historical time, Chandraketgarh was connected
to the Ganga by the Vidyadhri river, must have been an
important center for trade and possibly political center.
In 1907, A. H. Longhurst of A.S.I visited this site. Between
1956-57 and 1967-68 the Asutosh Museum of the
University of Kolkata.
Various kind of artifacts have been found at this site over
the year, like – Pottery, Seals, Bricks, Coins and the most
important Terracotta figurines. The early terra-cottas were
hand moulded while later ones show the use of single and
double moulds. These terracotta figurines help us to know
about the social life and religious practices.
Chronology of the site of Chandraketugarh-
Period I : Pre- Maurya , 600-300 BCE
Period II : Maurya, 300-185 BCE
Period III : Shunga, 185-50 BCE
Period IV : Kushan, 50-300 BCE
Period V : Gupta, 300-500 BCE
Period VI : Post-Gupta, 500-750 BCE
Period VII: Pala-Sena, 750-1250 BEE

41. 13 Conclusions
In my presentation I tried to reveal Social History of Pre-Historical Era and Early Historical
Era from some Archaeological remains but it is just an small introduction of long History.
All Archaeological Sources have its own limits because Artifacts itself can not make
history, it is only based on Archaeologists how they represent archaeological data. But it is
also true that Archaeological artifacts are direct source of historical analysis. Archaeology
just outline the features of the everyday life of people living in these in those Sites. Really
it is not a easy job to present the social life by Archaeological sources, the problem in
correlating literary and archaeological evidence are their completely different in nature,
their ambiguity and problem of dates. But the problem of dating the history is somehow
more easy solved by Archaeological evidences then literary sources because Archaeology
is scientific in nature.
So personally I can only say that representation of history should be based on
archaeology as well as literary evidences they are related to each other.
By-
Shubham Rajak
A.I.H.C & Archaeology, VISVA-BHARTI
C.A.S.T.E.I , Kolkata