Ancient India History at a Glance

History Capsule Note Ancient India
Compiled by shafi Omassery 9847073756
Capsule Notes for Quick Revision

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ANCIENT HISTORY
INDEX:
1. Prehistoric age in India
2. Indus Valley Civilization
3. Indus Valley Civilization Facts
4. Rise and Growth of the Magadha Empire
5. Buddha and His Teachings
6. Buddhist Councils & Buddhist Texts
7. Jainism
8. Chandragupta Maurya and the Rise of the Mauryan Empire
9. Mauryan Administration
10. Emperor Ashoka
11. Decline of the Mauryan Empire
12. Post-Mauryan India – Sunga Dynasty
13. Post-Mauryan India - The Satavahanas
14. Indo-Greek Rule
15. The Sakas
16. Kushana Empire
17. Gupta Empire
18. King Harshavardhana
19. Pallavas – Origins and Rulers
20. Pallavas – Society and Architecture
21. Chalukya Dynasty
22. Pala Empire
23. Vakatakas
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PRE – HISTORIC AGE IN INDIA
Introduction
->Evidence of Homo Erectus in the Indian subcontinent about 2 million years ago.
->Evidence of Homo Sapiens from 70,000 years ago as hunter-gatherers.
Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people
then.
1. Palaeolithic Period: 2 million BC – 10,000 BC
2. Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC – 8000 BC
3. Neolithic Period: 8000 BC – 4000 BC
4. Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BC – 1500 BC
5. Iron Age: 1500 BC – 200 BC
Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age)
This is further divided into three:
1. Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC
2. Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC
3. Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC
Lower Palaeolithic age
 Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers.
 Earliest lower Palaeolithic site is Bori in Maharashtra.
 Limestone was also used to make tools
 Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age
o Soan valley (in present Pakistan)
o sites in the Thar Desert
o Kashmir
o Mewar plains
o Saurashtra
o Gujarat
o Central India
o Deccan Plateau
o Chotanagpur plateau
o North of the Cauvery River
o Belan valley in UP
 There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters
 It was declared a World Heritage Site in 2003
 An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh
Middle Palaeolithic age
 Tools used were blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
 The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner
 Important middle Palaeolithic age sites
o Belan valley in UP
o Luni valley (Rajasthan)
o Son and Narmada rivers
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o Bhimbetka
Upper Palaeolithic age
 Emergence of Homo sapiens
 Lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, blades, fishing tools and burin tools.
 Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age
o Belan
o Son
o Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
o Maharashtra
o Orissa and
o Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
 Paintings at Bhimbetka site belong to this age.
Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
 Major climate change happened.
 Climate became warmer and more humid.
 Rainfall increased and so more availability of flora and fauna.
 Domestication of animals and plants were seen for the first time.
 Started 12000 years ago.
 First animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog.
 Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.
 Hunting and food gathering continued.
 First human colonization of the Ganga plains.
 Microliths have been excavated.
 They are small stone tools that were probably stuck to stones to be used as saws and
sickles.
 Major sites:
o Brahmagiri (Mysore)
o Narmada
o Vindhya
o Gujarat
o UP
o Sojat (Rajasthan)
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o Bhimbetka
o Godavari Basin
o Sarai Nahar Rai
 Tools used were blades, crescents, triangles, trapezes, spearheads, knives, arrowheads,
sickles, harpoons and daggers.
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
 Starting of agriculture
 Moving from nomadic to settled life
 Wheel discovered. Ragi, wheat and horse gram were cultivated
 They knew to make fire
 Knew pottery
 Art was seen in cave paintings of dance
 Also show first intentional disposal of the dead
Important sites:
o Inamgaon
o Burzahom (Kasmir)
o Mehrgarh (Pakistan)
o Daojali Hading (Tripura/Assam)
o Hallur (AP)
o Paiyampalli (AP)
o Chirand (Bihar)
o Evidence of houses
Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age/Bronze Age)
Indus Valley Civilization (2700 BC – 1900 BC)
 Other settlements at
 Brahmagiri Navada Toli (Narmada region)
 Chirand (Ganga region) and
 Mahishadal (West Bengal)
Iron Age
 Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period
 Jainism, Buddhism
 Mahajanapadas: the first major civilisation on the banks of the river Ganga after the Indus
Valley.
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2700 BC
and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started declining around 1900 BC and
disappeared around 1400 BC.
 This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab,
Pakistan).
 Pre-Harappan civilization has been found at Mehrgarh, Pakistan which shows the first
evidence of cotton cultivation.
 Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to
Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad
(Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have also been found in as
far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
Important sites:
In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat), Banawali
(Haryana), Ropar (Punjab).
In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in
Sindh).
 The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert
Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet.
 Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho
Sarup Vats.
 Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay and
Marshall.
 The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other
contemporary civilizations.
 Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the lower town.
 Most cities had a Great Bath.
 There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines,
excellent storm water and waste water management system, weights for measurements,
toys, pots, etc.
 A large number of seals have been discovered.
 Agriculture was the most important occupation. First civilization to cultivate cotton.
 Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats and pigs.
 Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates and peas.
 Trade was conducted with the Sumerians.
 Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin and lead. Gold and
silver were also known. Iron was not known to them.
 No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
 The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named ‘Pashupati Seal’
has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure. Marshall believed this to be
an early form of Lord Shiva.
 Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated. Faience was used to
make beads, bangles, earrings and vessels.
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 The civilization also was advanced in making art works. A statuette named ‘Dancing Girl’ has
been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years old. A figure of a bearded
Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjodaro.
 Lothal was a dockyard.
 Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H Symmetry culture,
bodies were cremated in urns.
 The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.
 Causes of the decline of this civilization have not been firmly established. Archaeologists
now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined.
People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned. Writing and trade declined.
 Mortimer Wheeler suggested that Aryan invasion led to the decline of the Indus Valley. This
theory has now been debunked.
 Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the decline.
 Lambrick suggests a change in the course of the river Indus caused its decline.
 Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation and a destruction of the
green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed by floods but not all. It is now
accepted that several factors could have led to the decline of the Indus Valley civilization.
 New cities emerged only about 1400 years later.
FACTS ABOUT INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
The Mesoptamia, Egypt, China and the Indus Valley Civilization, the four great civilizations of the
ancient world, the first three (Mesoptamia, Egypt, and China) have been broadly studied and
well-known to everyone. But the fourth and of equal importance, the much more sophisticated
Indus Valley Civilization that flourished along the flood plains of Indus and Gaggar-Hakra is lost
to human memory and till date remains puzzling.
It was in the 20th century, the lost and forgotten Indus Valley Civilization was rediscovered and
acknowledged and given equal importance with the other three civilizations (Mesopotamia,
Egypt, and China).
Here we bring some interesting facts about Indus Valley Civilization which would important for
UPSC Civil Services IAS Prelims Exam.
Fact# 1: Indus Valley Civilization was the largest among the other four civilizations of the
world (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China)
 The Indus Valley Civilization was spread over an area of 1,260,000 sq. km over modern-
India, Pakistan, and Agfhanistan
 The civilization extended from Ghaggar-Hakra Valley in the east to Markran coast of
Baluchistan in the west, from Agghanistan in the northeastern to Daimabad in
Maharashtra in the south.
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Fact# 2: The Population of Indus Valley Civilization was over 5 million
 The civilization had over 5 million inhabitants
 Most of the inhabitants of the civilization were artisans and traders.
Fact# 3: Nearly 1056 cities have been discovered
 1056 Harappan cities and settlements have been found
 of which 96 have been excavated
 Most of the settlements are mostly located int the broad region of the Indus and Ghaggar-
Hakra Rivers and their tributaries.
 The major urban centers are: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholaviral Ganeriawala and
Rakhigarhi
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Fact# 4: Majority of the population lived in villages and it is not evident
 Majority of the population of Indus Valley Civilization lived in villages
 it is not evident as the villages may have been constructed of destructible materials like
timber or mud
 Hence, it is difficult to find out the lifestyle and culture in these villages which have been
lost over a period of time without any trace
Fact# 5: Scholars and archaeologists are uncertain about the naming
 Since the first settlement was discovered along the banks of river Indus, the archaeologists
named the civilization as Indus Valley Civilization. But on contrary only around 100 sites
have been found in the Indus Valley, while over 500 sites are found along the Gaggar-Hakra
River (The present day Saraswati River).
 Most of the archaeologists prefer to call them as ‘Indus-Saraswati Civilization’ based on the
two river systems, while other prefer to name them as Harappan Civilisation as the first
settlement was discovered in this city (Harappa).
And, according to some archaeologists, the sites along the Gaggar-Hakra River are preserved as
they lie in the uninhabited desert.
Rise and Growth of the Magadha Empire
The four Mahajanapadas – Magadha, Kosala, Avanti and Vatsa were vying for supremacy
from the 6th centure BC to the 4th century BC. Finally Magadha emerged victorious and was able
to gain sovereignty. It became the most powerful state in ancient India. Magadha is situated in
modern Bihar. Jarasandha, who was a descendant of Brihadratha founded the empire in Magadha.
Both are talked about in the Mahabharata.
Haryanka Dynasty
The first important and powerful dynasty in Magadha.
Bimbisara (558 BC – 491 BC)
 Son of Bhattiya.
 He ruled over Magadha from 544 BC to 493 BC.
 Contemporary and follower of the Buddha. Was also said to be an admirer of Mahavira.
 Had his capital at Girivraja (Rajgir).
 Also known as Sreniya.
 Was the first king to have a standing army.
 He started the practice of using matrimonial alliances to strengthen his political position.
 He had three wives: Kosaladevi (King of Kosala’s daughter and the sister of Prasenjit),
Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali) and Khema (daughter of the king of
Modra, Punjab).
 He followed a policy of conquest and expansion. Most notable conquest by Bimbisara was
that of Anga.
 He had an effective and excellent administrative system. The officers occupying high posts
were divided into three – executive, military and judicial.
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Ajatasatru (492 BC - 460 BC)
 Son of Bimbisara and Chellana.
 He killed his father and became ruler.
 Embraced Buddhism.
 He convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after the death of Buddha in 483
BC.
 Won wars against Kosala and Vaishali.
Udayin
 Son of Ajatasatru.
 Shifted the capital to Pataliputra (Patna).
 Last of the major Haryanka rulers.
 Succeeded by three kings – Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka.
Sisunaga Dynasty
According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the reign of
Nagadasaka and placed an amatya (minister) named Sisunaga as king.
Sisunaga
 Was the viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha.
 Capital was at Girivaraja.
 He annexed Avanti and brought an end to the long rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.
 Later shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Kalasoka
 Son of Sisunaga.
 Kalasoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra.
 He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.
 He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to the throne.
Nanda Dynasty
This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty. The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda who usurped the
throne of Kalasoka.
Mahapadma Nanda
 He is called the “first historical emperor of India.”
 He murdered Kalasoka to become the king.
 His origins are not clear. As per the Puranas, he was the son of the last Sisunaga king from
a Sudra woman. As per some Jain texts and Greek writer Curtius, he was the son of a
barber and a courtesan.
 His reign lasted for twenty eight years from 367 BC to 338 BC.
 He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas) and “Ekrat”.
 The empire grew under his reign. It ran from the Kuru country in the north to the
Godavari Valley in the south and from Magadha in the east to Narmada on the west.
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 He conquered many kingdoms including Kalinga.
Dhana Nanda
 He was the last Nanda ruler.
 He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts.
 Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign; but he could not proceed
towards the Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal.
 He inherited a huge empire from his father. He possessed a standing army of 200,000
infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants and 2000 chariots. He became a powerful ruler
because of this.
 He is said to be one of the 8 or 9 sons of Mahapadma Nanda.
 He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of extorting taxes.
Also, his Sudra origins and an anti-kshatriya policy led to a large number of enemies.
 Finally he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with Chanakya, which led to
the foundations of the Maurya Empire in Magadha.
Causes of the rise of Magadha
Geographical factors
 Magadha was located on the upper and lower parts of the Gangetic valley.
 It was located on the main land route between west and east India.
 The area had fertile soil. It also received enough rainfall.
 Magadha was encircled by rivers on three sides, the Ganga, Son and Champa making the
region impregnable to enemies.
 Both Rajgir and Pataliputra were located in strategic positions.
Economic factors
 Magadha had huge copper and iron deposits.
 Because of its location, it could easily control trade.
 Had a large population which could be used for agriculture, mining, building cities and in
the army.
 General prosperity of the people and the rulers.
 The mastery over Ganga meant economic hegemony. Ganga was important for trade in
North India.
 With the annexation of Anga by Bimbisara, river Champa was added to the Magadha
Empire. Champa was important in the trade with South-East Asia, Sri Lanka and South
India.
Cultural factors
 Magadhan society had an unorthodox character.
 It had a good mix of Aryan and non-Aryan peoples.
 Emergence of Jainism and Buddhism led to a revolution in terms of philosophy and
thought. They enhanced liberal traditions.
 Society was not so much dominated by the Brahmanas and many kings of Magadha were
‘low’ in origins.
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Political factors
 Magadha was lucky to have many powerful and ambitious rulers.
 They had strong standing armies.
 Availability of iron enabled them to develop advanced weaponry.
 They were also the first kings to use elephants in the army.
 The major kings also developed a good administrative system.
Buddha and His Teachings
Facts about the Buddha
 Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha.
 Buddha was born as Prince Siddhartha at Lumbini near Kapilavastu (in present Nepal) in
566 BC.
 He was the son of Suddhodhana and Mahamaya. Suddhodhana was the chief of the Sakya
clan. Due to this, Buddha was also known as ‘Sakyamuni’.
 His mother died either giving birth to him or after seven days. Siddhartha was brought up
by his maternal aunt, Prajapati Gautami. This gave him the name ‘Gautama’.
 He was married to Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula.
 He left his home at the age of 29 to become an ascetic. This event is called
Mahabhishkramana.
 The idea of renunciation occurred to the Buddha after he saw four different states of man
– sick man, old man, corpse and ascetic.
 Buddha wandered for seven years and at the age of 35 attained enlightenment at Uruvela
while meditating under a banyan tree on the banks of the river Niranjana. This tree came
to be known as ‘Bodhi tree’ and the place became Bodh Gaya (in Bihar).
 He gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is called Dharmachakra
Pravartana/ Dhammachakkappavattana.
 He died in 483 BC under a Sal tree in Kushinagar (in UP). This event is called
Mahaparinirvana.
 The term ‘Buddha’ means ‘enlightened one’.
 Important contemporaries of Buddha were Mahavira Jaina, Kings Prasenjit, Bimbisara and
Ajatasatru.
Buddhist Philosophy/Teachings of the Buddha
 It teaches the Middle Path renouncing extreme step like indulgence and strict abstinence.
 The four noble truths (Arya satya) in Buddhism are:
1. The world is full of sorrow.
2. Desire is the root cause of all sorrow.
3. Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire.
4. Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths (Ashtangirka Marga).
 Eight-fold path are:
1. Right understanding
2. Right resolve
3. Right speech
4. Right action
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5. Right living
6. Right efforts
7. Right thought
8. Right self-concentration.
 The Tri Ratnas of Buddhism are: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
o Buddha: highest spiritual potential in every one.
o Dhamma: the teachings of Buddha (Pali for Sanskrit Dharma or righteousness)
o Sangha: order of monks who follow Buddhism.
 Buddha did not believe in god or soul.
 Stressed on karma and ahimsa.
 He was against the varna system. Buddha taught in Pali.
 Buddhism spread to several countries outside India. China adopted Buddhism in the 1st
century AD.
Buddhist Councils & Buddhist Texts
Buddhist Councils
Four Buddhist Councils or Sangeethis were held under different kings.
First Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Ajatasatru of Haryanka dynasty.
 It was held in 483 BC just after Buddha’s demise.
 It was held at Sattapani caves (Sattaparnaguha) in Rajagriha.
 Monk who presided over the first council was Mahakassapa.
 Main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings.
 At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) and Mahakassapa
composed the Vinaypitaka (monastic code).
Second Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Kalasoka of Sisunaga dynasty.
 It was held in 383 BC, i.e., hundred years after the Buddha’s death.
 It was held at Vaishali.
 It was presided over by Sabakami.
 Main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinaypitaka.
 The first major split happened here – two groups that would later evolve into Theravada
and Mahayana. The first group was called Thera (meaning Elder in Pali). They wanted to
preserve the teachings of Buddha in the original spirit. The other group called
Mahasanghika (Great Community) interpreted the Buddha’s teachings more liberally.
Third Council
 Conducted under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty.
 It was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra.
 Mogaliputta Tissa presided over the council.
 Main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and corruption in the
Sangha.
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 The Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed here making the almost completion of the modern
Pali Tipitaka.
 Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries.
 Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana.
Fourth Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan dynasty.
 It was held in the 1st century AD at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
 It was presided over by Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha.
 All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.
 Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
 This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely, Mahayana (the
Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).
 Mahayana sect believed in idol worship, rituals and Boddhisattvas. They regarded the
Buddha as God. Hinayana continued the original teachings and practices of the Buddha.
They adhere to the scriptures written in Pali while the Mahayana includes Sanskrit
scriptures as well.
Buddhist Texts
 The most important sources of Buddhism are the Tripitakas / Tipitakas written in Pali
language. They are:
1. Sutta Pitaka
2. Vinaya Pitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
 Dhammapada: a part of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka. It contains a collection of
the sayings of the Buddha in verse form.
 Milinda Panha: Literal meaning in Pali – Questions of Milinda. It was written around 100
BC. It contains a dialogue between the Indo-Greek King Menander I or Milinda of Bactria
and sage Nagasena where Milinda asks questions on Buddhism to the sage.
 Buddhacharita: it is an epic poem composed in Sanskrit by Ashvaghosha in early 2nd
century AD. It is about the life of the Buddha.
Causes of the Spread of Buddhism
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 Buddha’s magnetic personality.
 He taught in Pali which the masses understood as opposed to Sanskrit.
 He admitted people into the Sangha irrespective of caste distinctions.
 Initial Sanghas were democratic and disciplined organisations.
 The monks travelled to different places preaching the teachings of Buddha.
 It received royal patronage including from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanisha and
Harshavardhana.
Causes of the Decline of Buddhism in India
 Split into Mahayana and Hinayana weakened the religion.
 There was corruption among the latter monks. They gave up austerity and indulged in
luxuries. Moral standards deteriorated.
 Royal patronage for Buddhism declined after the end of the Gupta dynasty around 650 AD.
 Orthodox Hinduism became more popular especially due to the works of Kumarila Bhatt
and Adi Shankara.
 The invasions by the Huns and later by the Islamic armies further declined the influence of
Buddhism in the subcontinent.
Jainism
Origin of Jainism
 Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic religion.
 The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras.
 There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira.
 The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
 The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi. He may have lived in
the 8th or 7th century BC.
 All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.
Vardhaman Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)
 Considered the last Tirthankara.
 He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
 His parents were Kshatriyas. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother –
Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka King
Bimbisara).
 He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
 At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic.
 He also observed self-mortification.
 After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnan.
He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree aged 42. This is called Kaivalya.
Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses),
Nigrantha (free from all bonds) and Kevalin.
 He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pava (near Rajagriha) aged 72.
Causes of the rise of Jainism
 Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic.
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 Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was more accessible to the common man as
compared to Sanskrit.
 It was accessible to people of all castes.
 Varna system had rigidified and people of the lower castes led miserable lives. Jainism
offered them an honourable place.
 About 200 years after the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga valley prompted
Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (last Acharya of the undivided Jain sangha) to
migrate to Karnataka. Jainism spread to Southern India after that.
Teachings of Jainism
 Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.
 He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a product of the
natural phenomenon of cause and effect.
 He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but soul does not.
 One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.
 Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
 Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system unlike Buddhism. But he also said
that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and not birth.
 Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity and self-mortification were
expounded.
 Two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious) and Atma (unconscious).
 Triratnas of Jainism:
1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct (observance of five vows)
a. Ahimsa (non-violence)
b. Satya (truth)
c. Asteya (no stealing)
d. Parigraha (no acquiring property)
e. Brahmacharya (abstinence)
Split in Jainism
 When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his
followers.
 Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could be worn. Thus,
split Jainism into two sects:
a. Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners
b. Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners
Jain Councils
First council
 Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.
 Presided by Sthulabahu.
Second Council
 Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in the 5th century BC.
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 Presided by Devardhigani.
 12 Angas were compiled here.
Royal patrons of Jainism
South India
 Kadamba dynasty
 Ganga dynasty
 Amoghavarsha
 Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty)
North India
 Bimbisara
 Ajatasatru
 Chandragupta Maurya
 Bindusara
 Kharavela
Chandragupta Maurya and the Rise of the Mauryan Empire
Rise of the Mauryas
 The last of the Nanda rulers, Dhana Nanda was highly unpopular due to his oppressive tax
regime.
 Also, post Alexander’s invasion of North-Western India, that region faced a lot of unrest
from foreign powers.
 They were ruled by Indo-Greek rulers.
 Chandragupta, with the help of an intelligent and politically astute Brahmin, Kautilya
usurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda in 321 BC.
Chandragupta Maurya
 Chandragupta’s origins are shrouded in mystery. The Greek sources (which are the oldest)
mention him to be of non-warrior lineage. The Hindu sources also say he was a student of
Kautilya of humble birth (probably born to a Shudra woman).Most Buddhist sources say
he was a Kshatriya.
 It is generally accepted that he was an orphaned boy born into a humble family who was
trained by Kautilya.
 Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottos.
 Alexander had abandoned his India conquest in 324 BC and within a year, Chandragupta
had defeated some of the Greek-ruled cities in the north-western part of the country.
 Kautilya provided the strategy while Chandragupta executed it. They had raised a
mercenary army of their own.
 Then, they moved eastward into Magadha.
 In a series of battles, he defeated Dhana Nanda and laid the foundations of the Maurya
Empire in about 321 BC.
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 In 305 BC, he entered into a treaty with Seleucus Nicator (a general of Alexander who
ruled over northwest India) in which Chandragupta acquired Baluchistan, eastern
Afghanistan and the region to the west of Indus. He also married Seleucus Nicator’s
daughter. In return, Seleucus Nicator got 500 elephants. Seleucus Nicator avoided a war
with the mighty Chandragupta.
 Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court.
 Chandragupta led a policy of expansion and brought under one control almost the whole
of present India barring a few places like Kalinga and the extreme South.
 His reign lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC.
 He abdicated the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara and went to Karnataka with Jain
monk Bhadrabahu. He had embraced Jainism and is said to have starved himself to death
according to the Jain tradition at Shravanabelagola.
Bindusara
 Son of Chandragupta.
 He ruled from 297 BC to 273 BC.
 Also called Amitraghata (Slayer of foes) or Amitrochates in Greek sources.
 Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at his court.
 He had appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain.
 Bindusara is believed to have extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as well.
Chanakya
 Teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, who was also his Chief Minister.
 Brahmin by birth, he was a teacher and scholar at Taxila. Other names are Vishnugupta
and Chanakya.
 He was also a minister in the court of Bindusara.
 He is credited to be the master strategist behind the usurping of the Nanda throne and the
rise of the Mauryan Empire through his student, Chandragupta.
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 He wrote Arthashastra which is a treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy.
 Arthashastra was rediscovered by R Shamasastry in 1905 after it had disappeared in the
12th century.
 The work contains 15 books and 180 chapters. The main theme is divided into:
i. King, Council of Ministers and Departments of the Government
ii. Civil and criminal law
iii. Diplomacy of war
 It also contains information on trade and markets, method to screen ministers, spies,
duties of a king, ethics, social welfare, agriculture, mining, metallurgy, medicine, forests,
etc.
 Chanakya is also called ‘Indian Machiavelli”.
Mauryan Administration
The Mauryan Empire had an efficient and centralised administrative system. The chief
source of information regarding administration under the Mauryan Empire is Chanakya’s work,
Arthashastra. Megasthenes also gives some information in his book Indika.
Central Government
 Mauryan administration was highly centralised.
 The king was the supreme power and source of all authority.
 He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called ‘Mantriparishad’. The ministers
were called ‘Mantris.’
 The council was headed by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin to the Prime Minister of
today.
 Tirthas: Highest category of officials in the administration. There were 18 Tirthas.
 Adhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 20 Adhyakshyas. They had
economic and military functions.
 Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials.
 Amatyas: High ranking officials almost like present-day secretaries. They had
administrative and judicial roles.
 The Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat, which was divided into many
departments.
 Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce, store houses, gold, ships,
agriculture, cows, horses, city, chariots, mint, infantry, etc.
 Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the king’s revenue.
 Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing.
 Sansthadhyasksha: Superintendent of mint
 Samasthadhyasksha: Superintendent of markets
 Sulkaadhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls
 Sitaadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture
 Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships
 Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of iron
 Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and measures
 Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines
 Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers
 Pulisanj: Public relations officers
 Registration of births and deaths, foreigners, industries, trade, manufacture and sale of
goods, sales tax collection were under the administration’s control.
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Local Administration
 The smallest unit of administration was the village.
 Head of a village: Gramika Villages had a lot of autonomy.
 Pradeshika was the provincial governors or district magistrates.
 Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas.
 Durgapala: Governors of forts.
 Antapala: Governors of frontiers.
 Akshapatala: Accountant General
 Lipikaras: Scribes
Military
 The commander-in-chief of the entire military was called Senapati and his position was
next to the king’s. He was appointed by the king.
 The military was divided into five sectors namely, infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant
forces, navy and transport & provisions.
 The army’s salary was paid in cash.
Revenue
 The revenue department chief was called Samharta.
 Another important official was Sannidhata (treasurer).
 Revenue was collected on land, irrigation, shops, customs, forests, ferry, mines and
pastures. License fees were collected from artisans and fines were charged in the law
courts.
 Most of the land revenue was one-sixth of the produce.
Police
 All the main centres had police headquarters.
 Jail was called Bandhangara and lock-up was known as Charaka.
Espionage
 The espionage system of the Mauryas was well-developed.
 There were spies who informed the king about the bureaucracy and markets.
 There were two types of spies: Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer).
 Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret agents.
 They were controlled by the Mahamatyapasarpa. These agents were picked from different
segments of society.
 There were also agents called Vishakanyas (poisonous girls).
Transport
 The transport department fixed the width of the chariots, cattle tracks and pedestrians.
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EMPEROR ASHOKA
Early life
 Son of Mauryan Emperor Bindusara and Subhadrangi. Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya.
 His other names were Devanampiya (Sanskrit Devanampriya meaning Beloved of the
Gods) and Piyadasi.
 Considered one of India’s greatest emperors.
 He was born in 304 BC.
 His reign lasted from 268 BC to 232 BC when he died.
 At its zenith, Ashoka’s empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the
east. It covered almost the whole Indian subcontinent except present Kerala and Tamil
Nadu, and modern-day Sri Lanka.
 Ashoka built many edicts all over India including in present-day Nepal and Pakistan.
 His capital was at Pataliputra (Patna) and had provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.
Rise to power
 Ashoka was not the eldest son of Bindusara and so was not the heir presumptive.
 Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to be crowned the next king.
 But Ashoka was trained in military and weapons and showed great skills as an
administrator when he was made the governor of Ujjain.
 In the war of succession that followed Bindusara’s death in 272 BC, Ashoka emerged
victorious aided by his father’s ministers.
 When he became the king, he was said to be bad-tempered, ruthless and very cruel.
 He even built a torture chamber to torture his prisoners to death. This earned him the
moniker Chandashoka (cruel Ashoka).
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 Once he became the king, he started expanding his empire by conquest. In the ninth year
of his reign, he waged a war with Kalinga (in present-day Odisha).
Conversion to Buddhism
 The battle with Kalinga fought in 265 BC was personally led by Ashoka and he was able to
vanquish the Kalingas.
 Whole cities were destroyed and more than hundred thousand people were killed in the
war.
 The horrors of war disturbed him so much that he decided to shun violence for the rest of
his life and turned to Buddhism.
 Ashoka’s 13th Rock Edict describes the Kalinga war vividly.
 He now became Dharmashoka (the pious Ashoka) from Chandashoka.
 In about 263 BC Ashoka converted to Buddhism. Moggaliputta Tissa, a Buddhist monk
became his mentor.
 Ashoka even conducted the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 250 BC under
Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency.
Ashoka’s Dhamma (or Dharma in Sanskrit)
 Ashoka established the ideal of paternal kingship.
 He regarded all his subjects as his children and believed it the king’s duty to look after the
welfare of the subjects.
 Through his edicts, he said everybody should serve parents, revere teachers, and practice
ahimsa and truthfulness.
 He asked everyone to avoid animal slaughter and sacrifice.
 He expounded humane treatment of animals, servants and prisoners.
 He advocated tolerance towards all religions.
 He sought conquest through Dhamma and not war.
 He sent missions abroad to spread the word of the Buddha. Notably, he sent his son
Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
 Most of his edicts are written in Pali and Prakrit in Brahmi script. Some are written in the
Kharoshti and Aramaic scripts also. There are some edicts written in Greek as well. The
language depends on the location of the pillar.
Sources of information about Ashoka
 There are two main sources: Buddhist sources and Ashoka’s edicts.
 James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial administrator was the first person to
decipher Ashoka’s edicts.
 Ashokavadana (Sanskrit) written in the second century AD, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa
(Sri Lankan Pali chronicles) give most of the information about Ashoka.
DECLINE OF THE MOURYAN EMPIRE
After the death of Emperor Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire collapsed within five decades.
There are many reasons given by historians for this disintegration of a once mighty empire. At its
zenith, the Mauryan Empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It
covered almost the whole Indian subcontinent except present Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and
modern-day Sri Lanka. A few years after Ashoka’s death, the weakening of the empire started.
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The various reasons for the fall of the Mauryan Empire:
The partition of the Empire
 After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire split into two halves – western and eastern
parts.This weakened the empire.
 Kalhana, author of the work Rajatarangini which is an account of Kashmir’s history says
that after Ashoka’s death, his son Jalauka ruled over Kashmir as an independent ruler.
 This partition resulted in invasions from the northwest.
Highly centralised administration
 Historian Romila Thapar is of the view that the highly centralised administration under
the Mauryas became a problem with the later Mauryan kings who were not as efficient
administrators as their predecessors.
 Powerful kings like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka could control the administration
well. But weak rulers led to a weakening of the administration and ultimately led to the
empire’s disintegration.
 Also, the sheer vastness of the Mauryan Empire meant that there had to be a very effective
ruler at the centre who could keep coherent all the regions.
 A weakening of the central administration coupled with a large distance to communicate
also led to the rise of independent kingdoms.
Weak monarchs after Ashoka
 The successors of Ashoka were weak kings who could not carry the burden of the huge
empire that was bequeathed to them.
 After Ashoka, only six kings could rule over the kingdom for a mere 52 years.
 The last Maurya king, Brihadratha was overthrown by his own army commander,
Pushyamitra.
 Only the first three kings of the Mauryan Empire were men of exceptional abilities and
character. The later kings were no match in quality to their illustrious ancestors.
Independence of the provinces
 After Ashoka, under the later kings, the centre’s hold over the vast empire began to
disintegrate. This led to the emergence to various kingdoms.
 It is already mentioned that Jalauka ruled over Kashmir independently.
 Kalinga became independent.
 According to Tibetan sources, Virasena ruled over Gandhara independently.
 Vidarbha broke away from Magadha. As per Greek sources, a king named Subhagasena
(Sophagasanus) began to rule over the north-western provinces independently.
Internal revolt
 During the rule of Brihadratha, there was an internal revolt led by his army chief
Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 or 186 BC.
 Bana describes in Harshacharita how Shunga killed Brihadratha during an army parade.
 This ended the rule of the Mauryas over Magadha and thence started the Shunga dynasty’s
rule.
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Foreign invasions
 During the reign of the first three Mauryan kings, no foreign power tried to attack India
from the north-west as there was a fear of the mighty Mauryan army.
 But after Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split up into two. This led to the Greek king
Antiochus to attack India unsuccessfully.
 But in time, foreign tribes attacked and established their kingdoms on Indian soil. The
notable ones were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas and the Kushanas.
Ashoka’s policies
 Some scholars suggest that Ashoka’s policies of non-violence and pacifism led to the
weakening of the empire.
 Since he stopped waging wars, foreign powers were once again tempted to attack the
kingdom.
 Also, he gave a lot of importance and efforts to the propagation of Buddhism.
Brahminical reaction
 According to some historians, the Brahmins were unhappy with Ashoka’s unabashed
patronage of Buddhism.
 He had banned animal slaughter which was a sacrifice conducted by the Brahmins.
 But this theory is refuted because many of Ashoka’s inscriptions talk of respecting
Brahmins.
 Also, Pushyamitra Shunga, a general in the Mauryan army was a Brahmin which proves
that they had powerful posts under the Mauryas.
POST MAURYAN INDIA SUNGA DYNASTY
After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire steadily disintegrated as his successors
were not able to keep the vast empire from fracturing away. Independent kingdoms arose out of
the provinces. Foreign invasions were occurring in the northwest. Kalinga declared its
independence. In the South, the Satavahanas rose to power and in the Gangetic plains, Sunga or
Shunga dynasty replaced the Mauryas.
Pushyamitra Sunga
 Pushyamitra Sunga was a Brahmin army chief of Brihadratha, the last king of the Mauryas.
 During a military parade, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on the throne in
185 or 186 BC.
 According to some historians, this was an internal revolt against the last Mauryan king.
Some say it was a Brahminical reaction to the Mauryan overwhelming patronage of
Buddhism.
 Pushyamitra Sunga’s capital was at Pataliputra.
 He successfully countered attacks from two Greek kings namely, Menander and
Demetrius.
 He also thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king Kharavela.
 He conquered Vidarbha.
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 He followed Brahminism. Some accounts portray him as a persecutor of Buddhists and a
destroyer of stupas but there has been no authoritative evidence to this claim.
 During his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut were renovated. He built the sculptured
stone gateway at Sanchi.
 He performed Vedic sacrifices such as Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya.
 Pushyamitra Sunga patronised the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali.
 According to the Puranas, his reign lasted for 36 years. He died in 151 BC.
Agnimitra
 Was Pushyamitra’s son who succeeded him to the throne.
 His reign lasted from about 149 BC to 141 BC.
 By this time, Vidarbha broke away from the empire.
 Agnimitra is the hero of Kalidasa’s poem, Malavikagnimitram.
 His son Vasumitra succeeded him as king.
Last of the Sunga kings
 Vasumitra’s successors are not clearly known. Different names crop up in several accounts
such as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Vajramitra and Ghosha.
 The last Sunga king was Devabhuti. He was preceded by Bhagabhadra.
 Devabhuti was killed by his own minister, Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. This
established the Kanva dynasty at Magadha from 73 to 28 BC.
Effects of Sunga rule
 Hinduism was revived under the Sungas.
 The caste system was also revived with the rise of the Brahmanas.
 Another important development during the Sunga reign was the emergence of various
mixed castes and the integration of foreigners into Indian society.
 The language of Sanskrit gained more prominence during this time. Even some Buddhist
works of this time were composed in Sanskrit.
 The Sungas patronised art and architecture. There was an increase in the usage of human
figures and symbols in art during this period.
Post-Mauryan India - The Satavahanas
The Sunga dynasty came to an end in around 73 BC when their ruler Devabhuti was killed
by Vasudeva Kanva. The Kanva dynasty then ruled over Magadha for about 45 years. Around this
time, another powerful dynasty, the Satavahanas came to power in the Deccan area.
Kanvas (73 BC – 28 BC)
 As per the puranas, there were four kings of the Kanva dynasty namely, Vasudeva,
Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susarman.
 The Kanvas were Brahmins.
 The Magadha Empire had diminished by this time considerably.
 Northwest region was under the Greeks and parts of the Gangetic plains were under
different rulers.
 The last Kanva king Susarman was killed by the Satavahana (Andhra) king.
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Cheti Dynasty (Kalinga)
 The Cheti or Chedi dynasty emerged in Kalinga in the 1st century BC.
 The Hathigumpha inscription situated near Bhubaneswar gives information about it.
 This inscription was engraved by king Kharavela who was the third Cheti king.
 Kharavela was a follower of Jainism.
 Other names of this dynasty are Cheta or Chetavamsa, and Mahameghavahana.
Satavahanas
 The Satavahana rule is believed to have started around the third century BC, in 235 BC and
lasted until the second century AD.
 Some experts believe their rule started in the first century BC only.
 They are referred to as Andhras in the Puranas.
 The Satavahana kingdom chiefly comprised of modern-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
and Maharashtra. At times, their rule also included parts of Karnataka, Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh.
 Their capital cities varied at different times. Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati were
its capitals.
 Simuka founded the dynasty.
 They were the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with the portraits of the
rulers. This practice was started by Gautamiputra Satakarni who derived the practice from
the Western Satraps after defeating them.
 The coin legends were in Prakrit language. Some reverse coin legends are in Telugu, Tamil
and Kannada.
 They patronised Prakrit more than Sanskrit.
 They supported both Buddhism and Brahminism although they were Hindus and claimed
Brahminical status.
 They successfully defended their territories against foreign invaders and had many on-
going battles with the Sakas (Western Satraps).
Satakarni I (180 - 124 BC)
 Sarakarni I was the third Satavahana king.
 Satakarni I was the first Satavahana king to expand his empire by military conquests.
 He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela.
 He also pushed back the Sungas in Pataliputra.
 He also ruled over Madhya Pradesh.
 After annexing the Godaveri Valley, he assumed the title of ‘Lord of Dakshinapatha’.
 His queen was Nayanika who wrote the Naneghat inscription which describes the king as
Dakshinapathapati.
 He performed Ashvamedha and revived Vedic Brahminism in the Deccan.
Hala
 King Hala compiled the Gatha Saptashati. Called Gaha Sattasai in Prakrit, it is a collection
of poems with mostly love as the theme. Around forty of the poems are attributed to Hala
himself.
 Hala’s minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha.
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Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 – 130 AD or 86 – 110 AD)
 He is considered the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty.
 He defeated the Greeks, Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians) and the Sakas.
 His kingdom ran from Krishna in the south to Malwa and Saurashtra in the north and from
Berar in the east to the Konkan in the west.
 He defeated Nahapana, an important king of the Western Satraps.
 He is also called Ekabrahmana.
 His mother was Gautami Balasri and hence his name Gautamiputra (son of Gautami).
 He was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi or Pulamavi II.
Decline of the Satavahanas
 Pulamavi IV is considered the last king of the main Satavahana line.
 He ruled until 225 AD. After his death, the empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms.
INDO GREEK RULE
After the decline of the Mauryas, northern India was split into several kingdoms. In the
Magadha region, the Sungas came to power in about 185 BC. After that the Kanvas came to power
who were defeated by the Satavahanas originally from the Deccan. Northwest India was
constantly under attack from powers in Central Asia and northwest. The Indo-Greek or Graeco-
Indian Kingdom was established in around 180 BC when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius
invaded the Indian subcontinent.
Initial presence of Greeks in India
 After Alexander invaded northwest part of the subcontinent, one of his generals, Seleucus
Nicator, founded the Seleucid Empire.
 In Seleucus’s conflict with the mighty Chandragupta Maurya, he ceded large parts to the
west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, present-day Afghanistan and Balochistan to
the Mauryan king.
 After this, Megasthenes was sent to reside at Chandragupta Maurya’s court. Other Greek
residents at Mauryan courts were Deimachus and Dionysius.
 Greek populations lived in the north-western part of the Mauryan Empire as evident from
Ashoka’s edicts.
 Mauryas also had departments to take care of foreigners like Yavanas (Greeks) and
Persians.
 In ancient Indian sources, Greeks were called Yavanas (Sanskrit) and Yonas (Pali).
Indo-Greek Kingdom
 The Indo-Greek kingdom was ruled by over 30 Hellenistic (Greek) kings in northwest and
north India from the 2nd century BC to the beginning of the first century AD.
 The kingdom started when Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius (son of Euthydemus I)
invaded India around 180 BC. He conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of Punjab.
 The Indo-Greek kings imbibed Indian culture and became political entities with a mix of
Greek and Indian culture.
 For about 25 years, the Indo-Greek kingdoms were under the Euthydemid rule.
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 Many coins have been unearthed of these kings and most of the information we get about
them is from these coins. Coins have been found with Indian and Greek inscriptions. Many
coins have been found with images of Indian deities also. The Indo-Greek kings did this to
perhaps placate the population most of whom were not Greeks.
 The civil wars among the many Bactrian kings after the death of Demetrius facilitated the
independent kingdom of Apollodotus I who, in this way, can be regarded as the first
proper Indo-Greek king (whose rule was not from Bactria).
 His kingdom included Gandhara and western Punjab.
 Most of the Indo-Greek kings were Buddhists and Buddhism flourished under their rule.
 Greek influence is mostly seen in art and sculpture, particularly the Gandhara School of
art.
Menander I (Reign: 155 or 150 BC – 130 BC)
 Menander I Soter was also known as Minedra, Minadra or Milinda (in Pali).
 He was initially a king of Bactria. His empire extended from Kabul river valley in the west
to the Ravi River in the east; and from Swat valley in the north to Arachosia (Helmand in
Afghanistan).
 According to some Indian sources, he went as far as Rajasthan and Pataliputra.
 He converted to Buddhism and patronised the faith.
 He died in 130 BC and was succeeded by his son Strato I.
 The Milinda Panha (composed around 100 BC) records a dialogue between Milinda and
the Buddhist sage Nagasena. Originally written in Sanskrit, only the Pali version is
available now. In the work, Milinda is described as a wise, learned and able king. At the
end of it, Milinda accepts Buddhism and converts.
Decline of the Indo-Greek kingdom
 The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II. He ruled the Punjab region until 55 BC, some say
until 10 AD.
 Their rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas).
 It is believed that Greek people lived for several centuries more in India under the Indo-
Parthians and the Kushans.
THE SAKAS
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After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, northwest India was constantly under attack from
various invaders from Central and West Asia. The Indo-Greek rule lasted from about 180 BC till
about 55 BC. The Sakas (also written Shakas), alternatively known as Indo-Scythians, invaded
northwest India in the first century BC onwards.
Origins
 Scythians (referred to as Sakas in Indian sources) were a group of Iranian nomadic
pastoral tribes.
 In the second century BC, central Asian nomadic tribes and tribes from the Chinese region
invaded the region of present-day Kazakhstan whose inhabitants were Scythians.
 This promoted the Scythians to move towards Bactria and Parthia. After defeating the
Parthian king, they moved towards India. Scythians who migrated to India are known as
Indo-Scythians.
 The Sakas had an Indian kingdom larger than the Indo-Greeks.
Maues (Reign 80 BC – 65 BC)
 Maues, also known as Moga was the earliest Indo-Scythian king.
 He ruled over Gandhara (present Pakistan and Afghanistan).
 He invaded the Indo-Greek territories but unsuccessfully.
 His capital was at Sirkap (Punjab, Pakistan).
 Many coins issued by Maues have been found. They contain Buddhist and also Hindu
symbols. The languages used in these coins were Greek and Kharoshti.
 His son Azes I acquired the remaining Indo-Greek territories by defeating Hippostratos.
Chastana (Reign 78 AD – 130 AD)
 He was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas (Satraps) dynasty who ruled over Ujjain.
 The Saka Era is believed to have started at his ascension to power in 78 AD.
 Ptolemy mentions him as “Tiasthenes” or “Testenes”.
 He was the founder of one of the two major Saka Kshatrapa dynasties in northwest India,
the Bhadramukhas. The other dynasty was called Kshaharatas and included the king
Nahapana (who was defeated by Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni).
Rudradaman I (Reign 130 AD – 150 AD)
 He is considered the greatest of the Saka rulers.
 He is from the Western Kshatrapa dynasty.
 He was the grandson of Chastana.
 His kingdom included Konkan, Narmada valley, Kathiawar, other parts of Gujarat and
Malwa.
 He conducted the repair work of the Sudarshana Lake at Kathiawar.
 He married a Hindu woman and had converted to Hinduism.
 He also issued the first long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
 He took up the title of Makakshatrapa after becoming king.
 He maintained marital relationships with the Satavahanas. Vashishtiputra Satakarni was
his son-in-law.But he also fought numerous wars with them.
 He regained through conquests most of the territories previously under Nahapana.
 He supported Sanskrit literature and cultural arts.
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 It was during Rudradaman’s reign that Yavaneshwara, the Greek writer lived in India and
translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit.
Decline of the Sakas
 The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana
Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.
 The Saka rule in northwest India and Pakistan came to an end after the death of Azes II (12
BC) when the region came under the Kushanas.
 In western India, their rule came to an end in the 4th century AD when the last Western
Satrap Saka ruler Rudrasimha III was defeated by Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.
KUSHANA EMPIRE
Origins
 Kushanas are considered to be one of the five branches of the Yuezhi tribe who lived in the
Chinese frontier or central Asia.
 They are known as Guishuang in Chinese sources.
 They eventually acquired dominance over the other Yuezhi tribes.
 They moved eastward towards India defeating the Parthians and the Sakas in the 1st
century AD.
Kujula Kadphises (Reign: AD 30-AD 80) or Kadphises I
 Kujula Kadphises was the first Yuezhi chief to lay the foundation of the Kushana Empire in
India.
 He established his supremacy over Kabul, Kandahar and Afghanistan.
 He was succeeded by his son Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95) who expanded
the empire into northwest India.
Vima Kadphises (Reign: AD 95-AD 127)
 An inscription found at Rabatak in Afghanistan mentions that he was the son of Vima
Taktu and the father of Kanishka.
 He has issued a large number of gold coins.
 He was a Shiva devotee as is clear from coins issued by him.
 The large number of Roman gold coins found from this era indicates the prosperity of
India at that time and also the growing trade with the Romans.
Kanishka (Reign: 127 AD – 151 AD)
 Considered the greatest Kushana king and also a great king of ancient India.
 Son of Vima Kadphises.
 His kingdom included Afghanistan, parts of Sindhu, parts of Parthia, Punjab, Kashmir,
parts of Magadha (including Pataliputra), Malwa, Benaras, perhaps parts of Bengal,
Khotan, Kashgar, Yarkhand (last three in modern China). His empire covered Gandhara,
Peshawar, Oudh, Pataliputra, Kashmir and Mathura. His kingdom also included parts of
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
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 His main capital was Peshawar, then known as Purushpura.
 After the capture of Pataliputra, he is said to have taken away the Buddhist monk
Ashvaghosha with him to Peshawar.
 The scholars in his court included Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna, Charaka
and Mathara. He also patronised the Greek engineer Agesilaus.
 Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
 He patronised Buddhism although he was very tolerant in his religious views.His coins
contain a mix of Indian, Greek and Zoroastrian deities.
 He was also a patron of art and architecture. The Gandhara School of art flourished under
him.
 He also propagated Mahayana form of Buddhism and he was largely responsible for
propagating it in China.
 It is not known how he died.
Significance of the Kushana Empire
 Sanskrit literature began to be developed during this time. The fourth Buddhist council
was held in Sanskrit.
 Ashvoghosha is considered to be the first Sanskrit dramatist.
 During this time, three distinct schools of art flourished: Gandhara School in northwest
India, Amaravati School in Andhra and the Mathura School in the Ganges valley.
 Trade prospered between India and China, and India and the Roman Empire.
 The Kushanas controlled large parts of the Silk Route which led to the propagation of
Buddhism into China. It was during this time that Buddhism began to spread to Korea and
Japan also.
 Many towers, Chaityas, towns and beautiful sculptures were built under the patronage of
the Kushana kings.
 Kushanas were foreign invaders to begin with, but they were completely indianised in
ways and culture.
 It is said that the Kushana period in Indian history was a perfect forerunner to the golden
age of the Guptas.
Decline of the Kushana Empire
 Kanishka was succeeded by his son Vasishka.
 Vasishka was followed by Huvishka and Kanishka II (son of Vasishka).
 Kanishka II was followed by Vasudeva I.
 Vasudeva I was the last great king of the Kushanas. After his death the empire
disintegrated away. He probably died in 232 AD.
GUPTA EMPIRE
Origins
 The Gupta Empire rose to prominence in 320 AD and spread to large parts of northern
India, central and small parts of southern India.
 The founder of the Gupta dynasty is Sri Gupta.
 The original homeland of the Guptas is not known for certain. But they might have
originated from Bengal. Some scholars think they are from Prayaga (Allahabad in UP).
 They are thought to be either Brahmins or Vaishyas.
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Early kings
 The first ruler was Sri Gupta (reign from 240 AD to 280 AD).
 He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (reign: 280 – 319 AD).
 Both Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharaja in inscriptions.
Chandragupta I (Reign: 320 – 335 AD)
 Was the son of Ghatotkacha.
 Acquired the strategically important Magadha kingdom on marriage to a Lichchhavi
princess Kumaradevi.
 He extended his kingdom through conquests. His territory extended from the Ganges
River to Prayaga by 321 AD.
 He issued coins in the joint names of his queen and himself.
 He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings).
 He was successful in building a small principality into a great kingdom.
 He is considered the first great king of the Gupta Empire.
Samudragupta (Reign: 335 – 380 AD)
 Son of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi.
 Was a military genius and was successful in adding many territories into the Gupta
Empire.
 The Allahabad inscription describes his bravery as composed by his court poet, Harisena.
There it is said that he defeated nine kings of the Ganges Valley, twelve kings from the
southern region and eighteen forest tribes.
 His region extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Krishna and Godavari Rivers in
the south; and from Balkh (Afghanistan) in the west to Brahmaputra River in the east.
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 He was a follower of Vaishnavite Hinduism but was tolerant of other faiths. He gave
permission to the king of Sri Lanka, Meghavarna to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya.
 He was also called “Indian Napoleon” by art historian Vincent Smith.
 He also performed Ashvamedha sacrifice. Hence, one of his coins refers to him as “the
restorer of Ashvamedha.”
 He was also called “Kaviraja” since he composed verses.
Chandragupta II (Reign: 380 – 418 AD)844+
 Son of Samudragupta and his queen Dattadevi.
 He was also known as ‘Vikramaditya’.
 He further annexed territories including Saurashtra which gave him the western coastline.
 He used matrimonial alliances to expand his kingdom. He established matrimonial
alliances with the Nagas and the Vakatakas. He gave his daughter Prabhapavatigupta in
marriage to Vakataka ruler of Maharashtra Rudrasena II.
 He also annexed three Satrapa kingdoms and assumed the title Sakari (destroyer of the
Sakas). He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III thus acquiring Saurashtra and
Kathiawar.
 Through the western ports, the kingdom’s prosperity grew through trade links with
Roman Empires.
 After East and West India, Chandragupta II defeated northern rulers also like the Hunas,
Kambojas, Kiratas, etc.
 He was a brilliant conqueror and an able administrator as well.
 Like his father, he was a Vaishnavite but was tolerant of other religions.
 His other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja,
Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya Sakari, etc.
 His court had nine jewels or Navaratnas, nine people eminent in various fields of art,
literature and science. This included the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, Harisena,
Amarasimha (lexicographer) and Dhanvantari (physician).
 Fa-Hien, a Buddhist from China visited India during his reign. He records the prosperity of
the Gupta Empire.
Other Gupta rulers
 Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. He ruled till 455 AD.
 Kumaragupta I was the founder of the Nalanda University. He was also called Shakraditya.
 The last great king of the Gupta dynasty, Skandagupta was the son of Kumaragupta I. He
was able to repulse an attack by the Hunas but this strained his empire’s coffers.
 The Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skandagupta in 467 AD.
 He was followed by many successors.
 The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550
AD.
KING HARSHAVARDHANA
Facts about Harsha (Reign: 606 A.D to 647 A.D.)
 Harshavardhana was born in 590 AD to King Prabhakaravardhana of Sthaneshvara
(Thanesar, Haryana).
 He belonged to the Pushyabhuti also called Vardhana dynasty.
 He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana Buddhism.
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 He was married to Durgavati.
 He had a daughter and two sons. His daughter married a king of Vallabhi whereas his sons
were killed by his own minister.
Rise to the throne
 After Prabhakaravardhana died, his elder son Rajyavardhana ascended to the throne of
Thanesar.
 Harsha had a sister, Rajyashri who was married to king Grahavarman of Kannauj. Sasanka,
the Gauda king killed Grahavarman and kept Rajyashri prisoner. This prompted
Rajyavardhana to fight against Sasanka. But Sasanka killed Rajyavardhana.
 This led the 16-year old Harshavardhana to ascend the throne of Thanesar in 606 AD.
 He vowed to avenge his brother’s murder and also rescue his sister.
 For this, he forged an alliance with Bhaskaravarman, the Kamarupa king. Harsha and
Bhaskaravarman marched against Sasanka. Ultimately, Sasanka left for Bengal and Harsha
became the king of Kannauj also.
Empire of Harsha
 On acquiring Kannauj, Harsha united the two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj.
 He moved his capital to Kannauj.
 After the fall of the Guptas, North India was divided into many small kingdoms.
 Harsha was able to unite many of them under his command. He had under his control
Punjab and central India. After Sasanka’s death, he annexed Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
 He also defeated the Vallabhi king in Gujarat. (The Vallabhi king and Harsha came to a
truce by a marriage between Harsha’s daughter and the Vallabhi king Dhruvabhata.)
 However, Harsha’s plans to conquer lands to the south were hampered when the Chalukya
king, Pulakesin II defeated Harsha in 618-619 A.D. This sealed Harsha’s southern
territorial limit as the Narmada River.
 There were two types of territories under Harsha. One was directly under him and the
other type was those that were feudatories.
i. Direct territories: Central Provinces, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, Gujarat
ii. Feudatories: Jalandhar, Kashmir, Kamarupa, Sind, Nepal
 Even the feudatories were under the tight command of Harsha. Harsha’s reign marked the
beginning of feudalism in India.
 Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign. He has given a very favourable account of
king Harsha and his empire. He praises his generosity and justice.
 Harsha was a great patron of the arts. He himself was an accomplished writer. He is
credited with the Sanskrit works Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda.
 Banabhatta was his court poet and he composed the Harshacharita which gives an account
of Harsha’s life and deeds.
 Harsha generously supported the Nalanda University.
 He had a good tax structure. 1/4th of all the taxes collected were used for charity and for
cultural purposes.
 Harsha was a competent military conqueror and an able administrator.
 Harsha was the last king to rule over a vast empire in India before the invasions by the
Muslims.
Harsha’s death
 Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 years.
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 Since he died without any heirs, his empire disintegrated very soon after his death.
PALLAVAS ORIGINS AND RULERS
The Pallavas emerged as a formidable power in the South around the 4th century AD and
were at the height of their power in the seventh century AD. They were able to sustain their rule
for about 500 years. They built great cities, centres of learning, temples and sculptures and
influenced a large part of Southeast Asia in culture.
Origins
 The origins of the Pallavas are shrouded in mystery. There are several theories
propounded by historians.
 Some historians say they are a branch of the Pahlavas of the Parthians who moved to the
South.
 Some say they are an indigenous dynasty that arose within the Southern region and were a
mix of various tribes.
 Some experts believe them to be of Naga origin who first settled around the
Tondaimandalam region near Madras.
 Another theory says that they are descendent from a Chola prince and a Naga princess of
Manipallavam (an island off Jaffna, Sri Lanka).
 Some others are of the opinion that the Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas.
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 The first Pallava kings ruled during the beginning of the 4th century AD. By the 7th century
AD, there were three kingdoms in southern India vying for supremacy namely the
Chalukyas of Badami, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
Extent
 The Pallava capital was Kanchipuram.
 Their territories at the height of their powers extended from northern part of Andhra
Pradesh to River Kaveri in the South.
 During the seventh century, the Cholas were reduced to a marginal state by the authority
of the Pallavas.
 Vatapi (Badami) was occupied by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman who defeated the
Chalukyas.
 The Kalabhra uprising was crushed by the Pandyas, Chalukyas and the Pallavas jointly.
The Kalabhras were protesting against the numerous land grants (Brahamadeya) to
Brahmanas made by the Brahmanic rulers of the three dynasties.
Sivaskanda Varman
 Greatest among the early rulers. Ruled in the beginning of the 4th century AD.
 Performed Ashwamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.
Simhavarman/Simhavishnu (Reign: 575 AD – 600 AD)
 Was a Buddhist.
 Included Sri Lanka in his kingdom.
 Defeated the contemporary Tamil ruler. Pallava history assumes a definite character from
this ruler onwards.
Mahendravarman (Reign: 600 AD – 630 AD)
 Succeeded Simhavishnu who was his father.
 He was a poet and composed Vichitrachita and Mahavilasa Prahasana.
 He introduced rock cut temple architecture.
 Was a Jain who converted to Saivism.
 Had on-going rivalry and battles with Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty.
 Mahendravarman died in battle with the Chalukyas. He was an able and efficient ruler.
Narasimhavarman I (630 AD – 668 AD)
 Son and successor of Mahendravarman.
 Considered the greatest of the Pallavas. Also called Narasimhavarman
Mahamalla/Mamalla.
 Defeated and killed Pulakesin II in 642 AD. He took control of Vatapi, the Chalukya capital
and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.
 Also vanquished the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas.
 He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and reinstated the Sinhalese Prince Manivarma.
 He founded the city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram which is named after him.
 Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign in about 640 AD and he
describes the people living in his kingdom as happy.
 He also says there was an abundance of agricultural products.
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 Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar and Siruthondar lived during his
reign.
 He was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman II who ruled from 668 to 670 AD.
Later rulers
 After Mahendravarman II, his son Parameswaravarman became the king.
 During his rule, Kanchipuram was occupied by the Chalukyas.
 Nripatunga was an important king who defeated a Pandya king.
 There were a few other rulers. The last ruler of the Pallava dynasty was Aparajitavarman
who was killed in battle with the Cholas.
PALLAVAS SOCIETY AND ARCHITECURE
The rule of the Pallavas witnessed a lot of cultural achievements in southern India. The
Pallava kings were great patrons of art and architecture.
Society & Culture
 The Pallava society was based on Aryan culture.
 Brahmins were greatly patronised by the kings and they received land and villages. This
was called Brahmadeya. The Brahmin status greatly enhanced during this reign. The caste
system became rigid.
 The Pallava kings were orthodox Hindus and worshipped Shiva and Vishnu. They were
tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism too although both these faiths lost their relevance and
popularity.
 Kanchipuram was a great centre of learning. The University of Kanchi played a great part
in the propagation of Aryan culture in the South. It can be said that the aryanisation of
southern India was completed during the Pallava reign.
 Vatsyayana who wrote Nyaya Bhashya was a teacher at Kanchi University (Ghatika).
 Bharavi and Dandin lived in Pallava courts. Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuneeyam. Dandin
composed Dashakumaracharita. Both were masterpieces.
 The Vaishnava and Saiva literature flourished during this period.
 Sanskrit was the chief language among the royals and the scholars.
 Some of the inscriptions are in a mix of Tamil and Sanskrit.
 Vedic traditions were superimposed on the local ones.
 Many Tamil saints belonging to either Saivite (Nayannars) or the Vaishnavaite (Alwars)
sects lived during the 6th and 7th centuries. Saivite saints: Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar
and Manikkawasagar. Vaishnava saint: Andal (only female Alwar saint).These saints
composed hymns in Tamil.
 Dancers were being maintained by all big temples.
 There were three types of places during this time:
1. Ur: were peasants lived and was headed by a headman who collected and paid the taxes.
2. Sabha: land granted to Brahmins and was also called Agrahara villages. These were tax-free.
3. Nagaram: were merchants and traders resided.
 During the Pallava period, Hindu culture spread to many places in Southeast Asia as well.
Pallava influence is evident from the ancient architecture seen in Cambodia and Java.
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Architecture
 The beautiful and grand Pallava style of architecture can be divided into four phases or
styles:
1. Mahendra style (600-625 AD)
2. Mammala style (625-674 AD)
3. Rajasimha and Nadivarman style (674-800 AD)
4. Aparajita style (early 9th century)
 The Pallava era witnesses a transition from rock cut to free standing temples.
 Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock cut architecture. Mandagapattu rock cut temple
was the first rock cut temple built by him.
 Narasimhaverman II also known as Rajasimha built the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple
during the late 7th century AD.
 The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was also built by Narasimhaverman II. It is the
oldest structural temple in South India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1984. It is
also called Seven Pagodas.
 The Vaikuntha Perumal at Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman II.
 The Dravidian style of architecture begins with the Pallava reign
CHALUKYA DYNASTY
The Chalukyas ruled parts of Southern and Central India between the 6th century and the 12th
century.
The Three Chalukyas
 There were three distinct but related Chalukya dynasties.
 Badami Chalukyas: The earliest Chalukyas with their capital at Badami (Vatapi) in
Karnataka. They ruled from mid-6th They declined after the death of their greatest king,
Pulakesin II in 642 AD.
 Eastern Chalukyas: Emerged after the death of Pulakesin II in Eastern Deccan with
capital at Vengi. They ruled till the 11th century.
 Western Chalukyas: Descendants of the Badami Chalukyas, they emerged in the late 10th
century and ruled from Kalyani (modern day Basavakanlyan).
Extent of the empire
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 The Chalukya dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Pulakesin II.
 His grandfather Pulakesin I had created an empire around Vatapi.
 Pulakesin II subjugated the Kadambas, the Gangas of Mysore, the Mauravas of North
Konkan, the Latas of Gujarat, the Malavas and the Gurjars.
 He also succeeded in getting submission from the Chola, Chera and Pandya kings.
 He had also defeated King Harsha of Kannauj and the Pallava king Mahendravarman.
Chalukya Rulers
 Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas.
Pulakesin I (Reign: 543 AD – 566 AD)
 Founded the empire with his capital at Vatapi.
 Performed Ashwamedha.
Kirtivarman I (Reign: 566 AD – 597 AD)
 Son of Pulakesin I.
 Conquered Konkan and northern Kerala.
Mangalesha (Reign: 597 AD – 609 AD)
 Brother of Kirtivarman I.
 Conquered the Kadambas and the Gangas.
 Was killed by his nephew and son of Kirtivarman, Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin II (609 AD – 642 AD)
 The greatest of the Chalukya kings.
 Extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of the Deccan.
 His birth name was Eraya. Information about him is obtained from the Aihole inscription
dated 634. This poetic inscription was written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit
language using the Kannada script.
 Xuanzang visited his kingdom. He has praised Pulakesin II as a good and authoritative
king.
 Though a Hindu, he was tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
 He conquered almost entire south-central India.
 He is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha in his tracks while he was trying to
conquer southern parts of the country.
 He had defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I but was defeated and killed by
Mahendravarman’s son and successor Narasimhavarman I in a series of battles he had
with the Pallavas.
 For the next 13 years, Badami remained under Pallava control.
 Pulakesin II received a Persian mission as depicted in an Ajanta cave painting. He
maintained diplomatic relations with the King of Persia Khusru II.
 His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.
Vikramaditya I (655 AD – 680 AD)
 Son of Pulakesin II who plundered Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas.
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Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)
 Great-great grandson of Vikramaditya I.
 Last of the Chalukya rulers. Was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga.
Administration and Society
 The Chalukyas had great maritime power.
 They also had a well-organised army.
 Though the Chalukya kings were Hindus, they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
 Saw great developments in Kannada and Telugu literatures.
 Sanskrit along with the local languages thrived. An inscription dated 7th century mentions
Sanskrit as the language of the elite whereas Kannada was the language of the masses.
Art and Architecture
 They built cave temples depicting both religious and secular themes.
 The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
 The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style of architecture.
This is also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida or Chalukyan style. It is a
combination of Dravida and Nagara styles.
 Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi temple,
Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti. There are 70 temples in Aihole.
 Badami temples
 Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are ten temples here – 4 in Nagar
style and 6 in Dravida style. Virupaksha temple and Sangameshwara Temple are in
Dravida style. Papanatha temple is in Nagara style.
PALA EMPIRE
After the death of Harshavardhana, many kingdoms arose in North and Eastern India.
After the fall of the Gauda King Shashanka, there was anarchy in the region forming Bengal. The
Pala kingdom had a close relationship Southeast Asia particularly the Sri Vijaya Empire in
Sumatra. It also had links with the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate.
Origins
 Gopala founded the dynasty in 750 AD.
 He was a chieftain or military general who was elected as king by notable men of the area
to prevent anarchy.
Rulers
Gopala (Reign: 750 – 770 AD)
 First Pala king and founder of the dynasty.
 Son of Vapyata, a warrior.
 Was elected by a group of people.
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 At the time of his death, Pala kingdom included Bengal and most of Bihar.
 He built the monastery at Odantapuri, Bihar.
 Considered the first Buddhist king of Bengal.
Dharmapala (Reign: 770 – 810 AD)
 Son and successor of Gopala.
 Expanded the kingdom.
 Was a pious Buddhist.
 Founded the Vikramshila University at Bhagalpur, Bihar.
 He had frequent wars with the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.
 The Palas became the most powerful kingdom in northern and eastern India during his
rule.
Devapala (Reign: 810 – 850 AD)
 Son of Dharmapala and Rannadevi, a Rashtrakuta princess.
 Extended the kingdom to Assam, Odisha and Kamarupa.
 Was a staunch Buddhist and built many monasteries and temples in Magadha.
 Defeated the Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha.
Mahipala I
 Ascended the throne in 988 AD.
 Recovered northern and eastern Bengal.
 Also took Bihar.
Ramapala
 The last strong Pala king.
 The kingdom disintegrated during his son Kumarapala’s reign.
Madanapala (Reign: 1144 – 1162 AD)
 The last Pala king.
 After him, the Sena dynasty replaced the Palas.
Legacy of the Pala Dynasty
 The Pala Empire was dethroned by the Hindu Sena dynasty in the 12th century.
 The Pala period is also known as a ‘Golden Era’ in Bengali history.
 They built magnificent monasteries and temples: Somapura Mahavihara (in Bangladesh),
Odantapuri Monastery.
 They also patronised Buddhist centres of learning like Nalanda University and the
Vikramshila University.
 During this time, the Bengali language developed. The first Bengali literary work
Charyapada is attributed to this period. It was written in an Abahatta (the common
ancestor of Bengali, Assamese, Odia and Maithili.
 Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java sent an ambassador to Devapala.
 Buddhist poet Vajradatta who composed Lokesvarashataka was in Devapala’s court.
 Many Buddhist teachers from the Pala kingdom travelled to Southeast Asia to spread the
faith. Atisha preached in Sumatra and Tibet.
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 Sanskrit scholars were also patronised by the Pala kings. Gaudapada composed Agama
Shastra during the time of the Palas.
 The Pala art (art seen in Bengal and Bihar during the Pala regime) influence is seen in the
art of Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma and Java.
VAKATAKAS
The Vakataka dynasty ruled parts of South-Central India from 250 AD to 500 AD. They
were important rulers whose power was firmly established in the Deccan just like their
contemporaries, the Guptas in the north. They were important successors of the Satavahanas.
Origins
 The Vakatakas were Brahmins.
 Their origins are not clear with some claiming they are a northern family while others
claim they originated in southern India.
 They have Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions which are similar to those belonging to the
southern Pallavas.
 Also, no records of the Vakatakas have been found north of the Narmada. They are also
mentioned in the Puranas.
Extent
The Vakataka kingdom extended from the southern extremities of Malwa and Gujarat in the north
to the Tungabhadra River in the south; and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of
Chhattisgarh in the east.
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Rulers
Vindhyashakti (Reign: 250 – 270 AD)
 Founder of the dynasty.
 Nothing much is known about him except information from an Ajanta cave inscription
stating that he is the banner of the Vakataka family and that he is a Dvija (Brahmin).
Pravarasena I (Reign: 270 – 330 AD)
 Son and successor of Vindhyashakti.
 His other titles include Samrat, Dharmamaharaja and Haritiputra.
 His empire included a good portion of northern India and the Deccan.
 He conducted Vedic rituals like Ashwamedha, Vajapeya, etc.
 He conducted wars with the Nagas.
 He had four sons as per the Puranas and it is possible that the empire split up among his
sons.
 His son Gautamiputra died before him and his grandson (son of Gautamiputra) Rudrasena
I succeeded him to the throne.
 After his death, there were two divisions of the Vakatakas.
i. Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch
ii. Vatsagulma Branch
Pravarapura-Nandivardhana Branch
This branch ruled over Pravarapura (in present Wardha, Maharashtra), Mansar and
Nandivardhan in present Nagpur district.
Rudrasena I (Reign: 330 – 355 AD)
 Grandson of Pravarasena I.
 He was succeeded by his son Prithvishena I who reigned from 355 – 380 AD.
Rudrasena II (Reign: 380 – 385 AD)
 Son of Prithvishena I.
 Married Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II.
 Rudrasena II died leaving behind minor sons and during this time, the imperial Guptas of
the north is said to have controlled the Vakatakas through Prabhavatigupta who was the
regent on behalf of her sons.
Pravarasena II (Reign: 400 – 440 AD)
 Was named Damodarasena.
 Second son of Rudrasena II.
 He became the king after his elder brother Diwakarasena died.
 Founded the city of Pravarapura.
 Also composed Setubandha in Maharashtri Prakrit.
Vatsagulma Branch
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This branch ruled over the territory between the Sahyadri Range and the Godavari River with its
capital at Vatsagulma (present Washim, Maharashtra).
Sarvasena (Reign: 330 – 355 AD)
 Son of Pravarasena I.
 He authored Harivijaya in Prakrit.
Harishena (Reign: 475 – 500 AD)
 Fifth generation descendent of Sarvasena.
 Patronised Buddhist art and architecture.
 Many of the Buddhist caves, Viharas and Chaityas at Ajanta were executed under his reign.
Ajanta is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983.
 The later caves at Ajanta show the high perfection and sophistication in art achieved
under the Vakataka kings particularly Harishena.
 After his death, he was probably succeeded by a few rulers but not much is known about
the end of the dynasty.
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Ancient India History at a Glance

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