Indus Valley civilization also know as harappan civilization was one of the oldest urban civilization of the world, which flourished in the fertile plains of Indus river and its tributaries.

2.  From the beginning of the 4th millennium BC, the individuality of
the early village cultures began to be replaced by a more
homogenous style of existence.
 By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had
developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square
miles, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,
Baluchistan, Sindh and the Makran coast.
 It was a highly developed civilization and derived its name from
the main river of that region— Indus.
 The cities were far more advanced than their counterparts in
prehistoric Egypt, Mesopotamia or anywhere else in Western Asia.

3. The archaeological remains show that before the emergence of Harappan civilization
the people lived in small villages. As the time passed, there was the emergence
of small towns which ultimately led to full-fledged towns during the Harappan period.
The whole period of Harappan civilization is divided into three phases:
1. Early Harappan phase (3500 BC–2600 BC) – It was marked by some town-
planning in the form of mud structures, elementary trade, arts and crafts, etc.
2. Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC–1900 BC) – It was the period in which
we notice well developed towns with burnt brick structures, inland and foreign
trade, crafts of various types, etc.
3. Late Harappan phase (1900 BC–1400 BC) – It was the phase of decline
during which many cities were abandoned and the trade disappeared leading to
the gradual decay of the significant urban traits.
ORIGIN

4.  The oldest mention of the Indus Valley Civilization is found in the works of
Charles Masson in 1842.
 In 1856, while laying a railway track , British engineers came across an ancient city.
They used the bricks from the ruined city to build the railway bed.
 Finally it was Alexander Cunningham, the director of the Archaeological Survey
of British India, who presented to the world a seal from this ancient civilization.
 In the year 1920, Indian archaeologists Dayaram Sahni and R.D Banerjee
undertook excavations on one of these mounds in Harappa.
 The archaeologists expected to find something, but never imagined that a city lay
beneath the earth.
 Further excavation at different places in India and Pakistan, led to discovery of
another large city ‘Mohenjo-Daro’ with the recovery of at least 80 villages and
towns related to this newly discovered civilization.
 They named it Harappan Civilization after the first city they discovered.
DISCOVERY

5.  The archaeological excavations reveal that this culture was spread over a vast area
which included not only the present day states of India such as Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western Uttar Pradesh but also Pakistan
and some parts of Afghanistan. Some important sites of this civilization are:
1. Manda in Jammu and Kashmir
2. Shortughai in Afghanistan
3. Harappa in Western Punjab (Pakistan)
4. Mohenjo-Daro and Chanhudaro in Sind
5. Kalibangan in Rajasthan
6. Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat
7. Banawali and Rakhigarhi in Haryana
8. Daimabad in Maharashtra
9. Sutkagendor on the Makran Coast (near Pakistan-Iran border) is the western
most site of the Harappan civilization.
10. Alamgirpur in western Uttar Pradesh marks its eastern most limit.

7.  The people of these settlements subsisted on agriculture and cattle rearing.
However,theyalsopracticed huntingandfishing.
 Several evidences indicate that the Indus valley people had a resonant interest in
trade.
 Themaincropsof theperiod includewheat,barley,lentils, chickpeaetc.
 Skeletal remains from the sites suggest the presence of domesticated and wild
animalsinthesecultures.
 Theimportantdomesticated animalswerecattle, sheep,goat,buffalo andpig.
 Thewildanimalsincluded boar,deerand gharial.
 Thebonesof fish,waterfowl,turtleandrodentswerealsodiscovered.
SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY

8.  Agriculture along with pastoralism (cattle-rearing) was the base of
Harappan economy.
 The granaries discovered at sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and
Lothal served as the storehouses for grains.
 We do not have any clear evidence of the tools used for agriculture.
 However, the furrows or plough-marks have been observed in a
field at Kalibangan. These indicate plough cultivation.
 A terracotta plough has also been reported from Banawali in
Hissar district of Haryana.
 The irrigation was carried on a small scale by drawing water from
wells or by diverting river water into channels.

9.  Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of
Shortughai in Afghanistan.
 Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira may have been used to
store water for agriculture.
 The chief food crops included wheat, barley, sesame, mustard,
lentil, chickpea etc.
 The evidence for rice has come from Lothal and Rangpur in the
form of husks embedded in pottery.
 Millets have also been found from the sites of Gujarat.
 Cotton was another important crop. A piece of woven cloth has
been found at Mohenjo-Daro.
 Apart from cereals, fish and animal meat also formed a part of the
Harappan diet.

11.  The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its
town-planning. It is marked by considerable uniformity, though one
can notice some regional variations as well. The uniformity is
noticed in the lay-out of the towns, streets, structures, brick size,
drains etc.
 Almost all the major sites (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan
and others), are divided into two parts–
 A Citadel on higher mound on the western side. The citadel
contain large structures which might have functioned as
administrative or ritual centres. Buildings were constructed on mud
brick platforms.
 A Lower town on the eastern side of the settlement. The
residential buildings are built in the lower town.

12.  The streets intersect each other at right angles in a criss-cross
pattern.
 Itdividesthecityinseveralresidentialblocks.
 Themainstreetisconnectedbynarrowlanes.
 The doors of the houses opened in these lanes and not the main
streets.
 The drainage system of the Harappans was elaborate and well
laidout.
 Every house had drains, which opened into the street drains.
These drains were covered with manholes bricks or stone slabs
(which could be removed for cleaning) were constructed at
regularintervalsbythesideofthestreetsforcleaning.

14.  Generally, houses were either one or two storey high, with rooms built around a
courtyard.
 The houses were built of either sun-baked or burnt bricks.
 The houses of common people, however, differed in size from a single-room
house in Harappa to bigger structures.
 The bigger houses had many rooms surrounding a square courtyard.
 The difference in the size of the houses suggests that the rich lived in the larger
houses whereas the one-room buildings or barracks might have been intended for
the poorer section of the society.
 There are no windows in the walls along the ground level.
 The main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
 These houses were provided with private wells, kitchens and bathing platforms.
 Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside
and used by passer-by.

15.  At Mohenjo-Daro the ‘Great Bath’ is the most important
structure.
 It is surrounded by corridors on all sides and is approached at
either end a by a flights of steps in north and south.
 A thin layer of bitumen was applied to the bed of the Bath to
ensure that water did not seep in.
 Water was supplied by a large well in an adjacent room.
 There was a drain for the outlet of the water.
 The bath was surrounded by sets of rooms on sides for
changing cloth.
 Scholars believe that the ‘Great Bath’ was used for ritual bathing.
GREAT BATH

17. o Another structure here located to the west of the ‘Great Bath’ is
the granary.
o It consists of several rectangular blocks of brick for storing grains.
o The granary was divided into 27 compartment in three rows.
o It was well ventilated and was possible to fill grain in from outside.
o A granary has also been found at Harappa.
o It has the rows of circular brick platforms, which were used for
threshing grains.
o This is known from the finding of chaffs of wheat and barley from
here.
GRANARY

19.  Dead bodies were generally rested in north-south direction with their
head towards north and the feet towards south.
 The dead were buried with a varying number of earthen pots.
 In some graves the dead were buried along with goods such as bangles,
beads, copper mirrors. This may indicate that the Harappans believed in
life after death.
 At Lothal three joint or double burials with male and female bodies
together were discovered.
 Kalibangan has yielded evidence of a symbolic burial along i.e., a burial
which contains pots but no bones or skeleton.
 These different practices in different regions of Harappan civilization
may reflect diversity in religious beliefs.

21.  The Harappan society appears to have been matriarchal in nature. This view is
based on the popularity of the mother goddess as indicated by the finding of a
largenumberof terracottafemalefigurinesinPunjabandSindregion.
 The Harappan Society comprised of people following diverse professions. These
included the priests, the warriors, peasants, traders and artisans (masons, weavers,
goldsmith,potters,etc.)
 The structural remains at sites such as Harappa and Lothal show that different
typesof buildingsthatwereusedasresidencebydifferentclasses.
 The presence of a class of workmen is proved by workmen quarters near the
granaryatHarappa.
 Similarly, the workshops and houses meant for coppersmiths and bead makers
havebeendiscoveredatLothal.
SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION

22.  Infact, we can say that those who lived in larger houses belonged to
the rich class whereas those living in the barracks like workmen
quarters were from the class of labourers.
 Our limited knowledge about their dress styles comes from the
terracotta figurines and stone sculptures of the period.
 Men are mostly shown wearing a dress wrapped round the lower half
of the body with one end worn over the left shoulder and under the
right arm.
 The other garment was a skirt like dress to cover the lower portion.
 They used cotton and woolen clothes.
 A piece of woven cloth has been found at Mohenjo-Daro.
 Spindles and needles discovered at many sites attest to the practice of
spinning and weaving.

23.  Harappanpeoplelovedtodecoratethemselves.
 Hair dressing by both, men and women, is evident from figurines found at
differentsites.
 Themenaswellaswomenarrangedtheirhairindifferentstyles.
 The people were also fond of ornaments which mainly included necklaces,
armlets,earrings,beads,bangles,etc.,usedbyboththesexes.
 These ornaments were engraved with precious gems and stones like jade, agate,
lapislazuli,andcarnelian.
 Toilet jars found in Harappa show that Harappan women were fond of applying
ivorypowderandfacepaintascosmetics.
 Rich people appear to have used the ornaments of gold, silver and semi-precious
stoneswhilethepoorsatisfiedthemselveswiththoseof terracotta.

24.  The Harappan people were aware of almost all the metals except iron.
 They manufactured gold and silver objects.
 The gold objects include beads, armlets, needles and other ornaments.
 A large number of silver ornaments, dishes, etc. have been discovered.
 A number of copper tools and weapons have also been discovered.
 The common tools included axe, saws, chisels, knives, spearheads and
arrowheads.
 It is important to note that the weapons produced by the Harappans
were mostly defensive in nature as there is no evidence of weapons like
swords, etc.

25.  A well-known piece of art of the Harappan period is a stone sculpture of a
bearded man discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. His eyes are half closed indicating a
posture of meditation. Across the left shoulder is an embroidered cloak. In the
opinionof somescholarsitcouldbeabustof apriest.
 Alargenumberof terracottafigurinesof malesandfemaleshavebeendiscovered
fromvariousHarappansites.
 The female figurines outnumber those of males and are believed to represent the
worshipof mothergoddess.
 Besides these, a variety of models of birds, monkeys, dogs, sheep, cattle, humped
andhumplessbullsarefound.
 However,thenoteworthyspecimeninthisregardarevariousmodelsof terracotta
carts.
 Stonetoolswerealsocommonlyused.

26.  Wealsohavetheevidenceof theuseof thebronzethoughinlimitedmanner.
 The most famous specimen in this regard is the bronze ‘dancing girl’ figurine
discoveredatMohenjo-Daro.
 It is a nude female figure, with right arm on the hip and left arm hanging in a
dancingpose.Sheiswearingalargenumberof bangles.
 Bead-making also was an important craft. Beads were made of precious and
semipreciousstonessuchasagateandcarnelian.
 Steatite was used for making beads. The evidence of ‘bead makers’ shops have
beenfoundatChanhudaroandLothal.
Gold and silver beads have also been found. Ivory carving and inlaying used in
beads,bracelets andotherdecorations werealsoinpractice.
TheHarappansthusshowedtheirmasterlyskillinavarietyof artsandcrafts.

29.  Trading network, both internal (within the country) and external (foreign), was a
significant feature of the urban economy of the Harappans.
 As the urban population had to depend on the surrounding countryside for the
supply of food and many other necessary products, there emerged a village-town
(rural-urban) interrelationship.
 Similarly, the urban craftsmen needed markets to sell their goods in other areas. It
led to the contact between the towns.
 The traders also established contacts with foreign lands particularly Mesopotamia
where these goods were in demand.
 It is important to note that various kinds of metals and precious stones were
needed by craftsmen to make goods, but as these were not available locally they
had to be brought from outside.
 The presence of such raw material found at sites away from the place of its
origin naturally indicates it must have reached there through an exchange activity.

30. Rajasthan region is rich in copper deposits and the Harappans
acquiredcoppermainlyfromtheKhetrimineslocatedhere.
 Kolargold fields of Karnataka and theriver-bedsof the Himalayan
riversmighthavesuppliedthegold.
The source of silver may have been Jwar mines of Rajasthan. It is
believed that it must have also come from Mesopotamia in
exchangefortheHarappangoods.
 Among the precious stones used for making beads, the source of
lapis-lazuli was located in Badakshan mines in northeast
Afghanistan.

31.  Turquoise and Jade might have been brought from
Central Asia.
 Western India supplied agate, chalcedony and
carnelian.
 The seashells must have come from Gujarat and
neighboring coastal areas.
 Timber of good quality and other forest products
were perhaps obtained from the northern regions
such as Jammu.

32. The Harappans were engaged in external trade with Mesopotamia. It
was largely through Oman and Behrain in the Persian Gulf.
It is confirmed by the presence of Harappan artefacts such as beads,
seals, dice etc. in these regions.
 Though the artefacts from those regions are rarely found at the
Harappan sites, a seal of West Asian or Persian origin has been
discovered at Lothal which confirms this contact.
Mesopotamian cities like Susa, Ur, etc. have yielded about two dozen
of Harappan seals.
 Besides seals, other artefacts of Harappan origin which have been
discovered include potteries, etched carnelian beads and dices with
Harappan features.

33.  The inscriptional evidence from Mesopotamia also provides us with
valuable information on Harappan contact with Mesopotamia.
These inscriptions refer to trade with Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha.
Scholars have identified Meluhha with Harappan region, Magan
with the Makran coast, and Dilmun with Bahrain.
They indicate that Mesopotamia imported copper, carnelian, ivory,
shell, lapis-lazuli, pearls and ebony from Meluhha.
The export from Mesopotamia to Harappans included items such
as garments, wool, perfumes, leather products and sliver. Except
silver all these products are perishable. This may be one important
reason why we do not find the remains of these goods at
Harappan sites.

34.  Harappan Pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well
baked.
 It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the
plain variety being more common.
 The painted designs consists of horizontal lines of varied thickness, leaf
patterns, palm and Pipal trees.
 Birds, fishes and animals are also depicted on potteries.
 Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed,
polychrome, incised, perforated and knobbed.
 The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the
ancient world.
 On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character,
though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic
touch.

36.  The Harappans were literate people.
 Harappan seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets,
jewelry, bone rods, signboard etc. are engraved with various signs or characters.
 Recent studies suggest that the Harappan script consists of about 375-400
signs and that it was written from right to left.
 However, the script has not been deciphered as yet.
 It is believed that they used ideograms i.e., a graphic symbol or character to
convey the idea directly.
 Typical Indus inscriptions are short and are no more than 4 or 5 characters in
length.
 We do not know the language they spoke, though scholars believe that they
spoke “Brahui”, a dialect used by Baluchi people in Pakistan today.
 However further research alone can unveil the mystery and enable us to know
more about the Harappan script.

38.  They are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people.
 More than two thousand seals have been discovered from different sites.
 Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone).
 The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white luster was a
unique invention of the Harappans.
 The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short
inscription.
 Unicorn is the animal most frequently represented on the seals.
 Main type –
 the square type with a carved animal and inscription,
 the rectangular type with inscription only.

40.  The people of Indus Valley Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring
length, mass, and time.
 They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and
measures.
 Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was
approximately 1.704mm, the smallest division of measurement for all practical
purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron
weights.
 Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper,
bronze, lead, and tin.
 A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably
used for testing the purity of gold.
 Exchanging were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a
stone called chert and generally cubical, with no markings.
 Metal scale-pans have also been found.

42.  Our knowledge on the religious beliefs and practices of the Harappans is
largely based on the Harappan seals and terracotta figurines available to us.
 The Harappan religion is normally termed as animism i.e., worship of trees,
stones etc.
 The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented
in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces
and two horns.
 He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each
facing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feel.
 In another instance, a deity is shown with horns and flowing hair standing
nude between the branches of a Pipal tree and a worshipper is kneeling in
front. It may represent tree worship.

43.  The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been
depicted in various forms.
 A large number of terracotta figurines discovered at the Harappan
sites have been associated with the worship of mother goddess.
 Many of these represent females adorned with a wide girdle, loin
cloth and necklaces. They wear a fan-shaped head dress.
 In some cases the female is shown with an infant while there is
one that shows a plant growing out of the uterus of a woman.
 The latter type probably symbolizes the goddess of earth.
 There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship.
Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship),
besides those of the phallus(linga), have been discovered.

44.  The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at
Lothal and Kalibangan.
 At Kalibangan, a series of raised brick platforms with pits
containing ash and animal bones have been discovered. These are
identified by many scholars as fire altars.
 This also shows that the Harappans living in different areas
followed different religious practices as there is no evidence of
fire-pits at Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro.
 Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees
(pipal,etc) and animals (unicorn etc.)
 Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as
protection against them.

45. The central figure on a seal discovered
during excavation of the Mohenjo-Daro
archeological site in the Indus Valley
Civilization was interpreted as an image
of “Pasupati” by the archeologists John
Marshall. The same figure has been
described as a possible “yogi” or “proto-
shiva”.Some described the figure as
sitting in a traditional cross-legged yoga
pose with its hands resting on its knees,
surrounded by animals and wearing a
horned head-dress. It is the one with a
horned male deity represented on it. He
has three heads and is sitting in a yogic
posture surrounded by four animals via
elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and a buffalo.
PASHUPATI MAHADEV

46.  Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a center of power or
of depiction of people in power in Harappan society.
 But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented.
 For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts as evident in
pottery, seals, weights and bricks.
These are major assumptions:
 There was a single state, given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence for
planned settlements, the standardized ratio of brick size, and the establishments
near sources of raw material .
 There was no ruler but several -- Mohenjo-Daro had a separate ruler, Harappa
another, and so forth.
 Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.
AUTHORITY AND
GOVERANCE

47. In 1927, a seated male soapstone figure was found in a building
with usually ornamental brickwork and a wall-niche. Though
there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled Mohenjo-
Daro, archeologists dubbed this dignified figure a “Priest King".
This sculpture is 17.5 centimeters tall. It depicts a bearded man,
with a fillet around his head, an armband, and a cloak decorated
with trefoil patterns that were originally filled with a red pigment.
The two ends of the fillet fall along the back. The hair is carefully
combed towards the back of the head but no bun is present. The
flat back of the head may have held a separately carved bun, or it
could have held a more elaborate horn and plumed headdress.
Two holes beneath the highly stylized ears suggest that a necklace
or other head ornament was attached to the sculpture. The left
shoulder is covered with a cloak decorated with trefoil, double
circle and single circle designs that were originally filled with red
pigment. Drill holes in the center of each circle indicated they were
made with a specialized drill and then touched up with a chisel.
The eyes are deeply incised and may have held inlay. The upper lip
shaved, and a short combed beard frames the face.

48.  It was discovered in the year 1922 by R.D. Banerjee on the banks of river
Indus.
 In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjodaro means ‘mound of the dead’.
 It is the largest of all Indus cities.
 The Great Bath is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length)
X 23 feet (breadth) X 8 feet (depth).
 Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork. Its
floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. It must have served as
a ritual-bathing site.
 Remains have been found of an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a big
rectangular building, which must have served administrative purposes.
 Most of Mohenjodaro houses are built of kiln-fired brick
 The major streets are 33 feet wide and run north-south, intersecting
subordinate ones, running east-west at right angles.
MOHENJODARO

49.  The evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of
woven cloth has been discovered from here.
 There is a large granary consisting of podium of square blocks of
burnt-bricks with a wooden superstructure.
 Parallel rows of two-roomed cottages found the workmen or poor
sections of the society perhaps used these cottages.
 A bronze dancing girl, steatite statue of a priest and a seal bearing
Pashupati have been found here.
 It is important to remember that Mohenjo-Daro shows nine levels
of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain.
 Excavation reveals that the city was flooded more than seven times.

50.  It was discovered in the year 1961 by B.B.Lal and B.K.Thapar on
the banks of river Ghaggar.
 Has pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phases.
 Less developed compared to Mohenjodaro.
 There is evidence of mud-brick fortification.
 Pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed
unlike the Harappan period.
 Archaeologists have discovered two platforms (within the citadel)
with fire altars suggesting the practice of cult sacrifice.
 The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel
having a single hub.

51.  It was discovered in the year 1991 by J.P. Joshi and R.S. Bist.
 It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in
India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana.
 The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts — Citadel
and the Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal
divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular
fortifications.
 There are two inner enclosures — the first one hemmed in the
citadel (which probably housed the highest authority)and the second
one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the
rulers and other officials). The existence of this middle town, apart
from the lower town, is the real exclusive feature of this city.

52.  It was discovered in the year 1931 by M.G.Majumdar on the banks
of river Indus.
 Only Indus city without a citadel.
 Existence of Pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phase.
 A small pot was discovered here, which was probably an ink pot.
 Excavations reveal that people of Chanhudaro were expert
craftsmen.
 Archaeologists have discovered here metalworkers, shell-ornament
makers, and bead-makers shops
 The city was twice destroyed by inundations.
 Here more extensive but indirect evidence of super-imposition of
a barbarian lifestyle is seen

53.  It was discovered in the year 1955 by S.R.Rao on the banks of river Bhogavo.
 Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard.
 This is the port city of Indus Valley Civilization.
 It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people.
 It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection.
 Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC).
 The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near
Ahmedabad.
 Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found.
 Double burial system was noticed.
 A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here.

54.  The Harappan Civilization flourished till 1900 BC.
 The period following this is marked by the beginning of the post-urban phase
or (Late Harappan phase).
 This phase was characterized by a gradual disappearance of the major traits such
as town-planning, art of writing, uniformity in weights and measures,
homogeneity in pottery designs, etc.
 The regression covered a period from 1900 BC–1400 BC. There was also the
shrinkage in the settlement area.
 For instance, Mohenjo-Daro was reduced to a small settlement of three hectares
from the original eighty five hectares towards the end of the Late phase.
 The population appears to have shifted to other areas.
 It is indicated by the large number of new settlements in the outlying areas of
Gujarat, east Punjab, Haryana and Upper Doab during the later Harappan
period.

55.  It is suggested by some scholars that natural calamities such as floods and
earthquakes might have caused the decline of the civilization. It is believed
that earthquakes might have raised the level of the flood plains of the lower
course of Indus river. It blocked the passage of the river water to the sea and
resulted in the floods which might have swallowed the city of Mohenjo-Daro.
However, this only explains the decline of Mohenjo-Daro and not of the whole
civilization.
 Increased aridity and drying up of the river Ghaggar-Harka on account of the
changes in river courses, according to some scholars, might have contributed
to the decline. This theory states that there was an increase in arid conditions
by around 2000 BC. This might have affected agricultural production, and led
to the decline.
 Aryan invasion theory is also put forward as a cause for the decline. According
to this, the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryans who came to
India from north-west around 1500 BC. However, on the basis of closer and
critical analysis of data, this view is completely negated today.

56.  The Harappan civilization was the first urban civilization of the
Indian subcontinent.
 Archaeological discoveries show that this culture evolved from the
earlier rural communities.
 Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali,
Rakhigarhi and Dholavira were some of the important sites of the
Harappan civilization.
 Well-planned towns can be observed at some Harappan centres.
These towns were characterized by two broad divisions–a citadel on
a higher mound and the lower town.
 Burnt bricks were used for building houses.
 The towns had good drainage system.

57.  Some major buildings at the Harappan towns were the Great Bath at
Mohenjo-Daro, a granary at Harappa, and a dockyard at Lothal.
 The Harappans practiced agriculture along with pastoralism. Though
there were skilled craftsmen who worked in copper and other metals,
the stone tools were still in common use.
 They produced beads, terracotta figurines, potteries and seals of
various kinds.
 The Harappans carried out trade, both internal and external.
 They had commercial links with Mesopotamian cities through Oman
and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf.
 The merchants traded in various commodities of import and export.
 The Harappan society seems to have been matriarchal in nature.

58.  Thepeoplefolloweddifferentprofessionssuchasthoseof priests,physicians,
warriors,peasants,tradersandartisans.
 ThoughtheHarappansworesimpleclothesmadeof cottonandwool,theywere
fondof decorating themselveswithvariouskindsof ornaments.
 TheHarappansworshippedthemothergoddess,Pashupati(Proto-Shiva),treesand
animals.
 Theyalsofolloweddifferentkindsof burialpracticesandritualsassociated with
them.
 TheHarappanswereliterateandtheirscriptisintheformof ideograms.However,
thescripthasnotbeendecipheredsofar.
 Scholarshavesuggestedvariousfactorssuchasnaturalcalamities, increasedaridity,
andtheAryaninvasionforthedeclineof theculture.Thearchaeologicalevidence
suggeststhatthiscivilizationdidnotfaceasuddencollapsebuthadagradualdecline.