Definition, Types, Their role in human life, Deficiency diseases, treatment, Water its role & quantity in human being, etc.

1. Minerals
Shalini N. Barad,
Assistant Professor,
Appasaheb Birnale College of Pharmacy.

2. • Define--
MINERALS: these are inorganic homogeneous
substances which must be supplied by the diet
to perform various physiological functions.
• Classification
1.Principal trace elements /Major minerals-
(macro elements)
• They are required in amounts greater than
100 mg/day.
• E.g. calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, chloride, sulphur.

3. 2. The trace elements /Trace minerals
(microelements): are required in amounts less
than 100 mg/day.
• They are subdivided into three categories:
i)Essential trace elements: These are the elements
which are not synthesized in the body but are
required for performing biochemical functions in
the body in trace amounts only.
E.g.- iron, copper, iodine, manganese, zinc,
molybdenum, cobalt, fluorine, selenium,
chromium.

4. ii. Non-essential trace elements:
e.g.-aluminium, lead, mercury, boron, silver,
bismuth.
• Physiological functions :
1.  Maintenance of osmotic pressure of cell
2.  Oxygen transportation
3.  Growth and maintenance of tissues and bones
4.  Proper working of nervous system
5.  Muscular contraction
6.  Maintenance of electrolyte balance
7.  Maintenance of acid- base balance
8.  Activation of enzymes.

5. 1. Calcium–
• It is an essential constituent of cell.
• Calcium Plays important role in following physiological
function:

6. • Physiological function:
1. Formation & development of bones &teeth
2. Muscle contraction
3. Blood clotting
4. Growth of children
5. Responsible for transmission of nerve impulse
6. Activation of enzymes
7. Regulation of permeability of membranes
8. Release of hormones
9. Cell to cell contact & adhesion of cells in a tissue
10. Calcium acts on myocardium & prolongs systole.

7. Diseases caused by calcium deficiency:
Diseases –1. Tetany (Hypocalcaemia):
• Reduced ionized fraction of serum calcium causes tetany.
• It may be due to: Poor absorption of calcium from intestines or
Decreased dietary intake of calcium or Increased renal excretion of
calcium Or Increase in blood pH
• Symptoms: Painful muscle cramps, loss of muscle tone, Flabby face,
hands & feet affected, spasms, convulsions
2. Rickets:
• Initial vitamin D deficiency followed by calcium deficiency particularly
in children.
• it is due to faulty calcification of bones in children.
Symptoms:
• Faulty calcification of bones, Diffuse bone pain, Muscle weakness,
Skeletal deformity

8. 3. Osteoporosis:
• Reduction in total bone calcium
(Demineralization),Pain of spine, Loss of height ,
Vertebral compression (kyphosis)
• Due to the inadequate diet and limited exposure to
sunlight. This disease found in adults
• Treatment–diet supplement with calcium salts like
CaCO3, Calcium gluconate, Calcium lactate, calcium
phosphate.

9. 2. Sodium:
• Human body contain 100g sodium distributed in
extracellular fluid (ECF) of body.
• Daily requirement- 2 to 5 gm.
• It exist in in association with chloride, bicarbonate,
phosphate, lactate, ec.
• Physiological function--
1. To maintain acid base balance.
2. Required for maintenance of osmotic pressure &
fluid balance
3. Required for normal muscle irritability & cell
permeability
4. Required for initiating & maintaining heart beat

10. • Deficiency–1. Hyponatremia
• The plasma sodium level below normal is called
hyponatremia.
• Symptoms-
1. severe dehydration
2. Decrease in blood volume
3. Decrease in blood pressure.
4. Circulatory failure.
• Reason of hyponatremia--
1. prolonged vomiting
2. Chronic renal disease
• Treatment-
--sodium rich diet= fish, mea, milk & tablet salt.

11. 3. Phosphorus:
• Large quantity of Phosphorus is associated with calcium
in bone.
• It is also present in body as inorganic salt of phosphoric
acid or in combination with organic compound.
• Adult human body contain= 500- 600 gm of PO4
• Physiological function—
1.  Essential for development of bones & teeth
2.  Acts as coenzyme Pyridoxal phosphate, NADP
3.  It is necessary for absorption & metabolism of
carbohydrates.
4.  It is an essential component of several nucleotide
coenzymes
5. In acid –base balance.

12. • Source– milk, egg, fish, pulses, nuts, vegetables.
• Deficiency– Softening of bones.

13. 4. Potassium:
• It is intracellular ion.
• Adult human body contain -250 g of
potassium.
• Physiological function—
1. It regulate acid-base balance.
2. It regulate Osmotic pressure of cell.
3. It is involved in transmission of nerve impulse.
4. It influences the activity of muscle.
5. It is essential for growth & build up of tissue.

14. • Source-- leafy vegetable, fruits, nuts
• Deficiency– Hypokalemia
• The blood plasma level below normal.
• Reason of hypokalemia-
1. Prolonged diarrhea & vomiting.
2. Overactivity of adrenal cortex
3. Prolonged use of diuretics

15. 5. Chlorine—
• This element is found in body exclusively as chloride ion.
• Daily intake = 10gm
• Adult body contain= 100 gm of chloride (Cl ) ion found in
ECF.
• Close relation is seen between chloride & sodium in
physiological process.
• It is chief anion of gastric juice, , the conc. Is equal to conc.
of hydrogen ion.
• The chloride of gastric juice is derived from blood chloride
& it get absorbed during later stages of digestion

16. Physiological function:
1. Chloride ion also have imp role in transport of CO2
from various tissue to lung. Due to chloride shift,
the bicarbonate ion conc. increases which enters in
RBC.
2. Chloride activate salivary amylase.
3. Radioactive (Cl38
) is used for determination of EC
volume of body.

17. 6. Magnesium—
• About 60% of magnesium is present in bones.
• Daily requirement for adult= 220 mg.
• In pregnancy & lactation =400 mg.
• Large quantity of Mg is intercellular only 2 mg/l is
present in ECF.
• Mg is required by various enzyme like ATPase,
DNA polymerase, etc.
• Number of enzyme require magnesium as metal
cofactor.
• Excess of Mg causes depression of CNS & CVS
with depression of BP.

18. • Deficiency—
• Mg leads to cellular losses.
• Excess urinary excretion as in diabetic acidosis.
• Irritability of CNS.

19. 7. Zinc—
• It is co-factor in number of enzyme systems, for eg-
carbonic anhydrase, several dehydrogenase,
carboxypeptidase, glycosidase & phosphatase.
• Function—
1. It is required for formation of nucleic acid (RNA)
2. Maturation of spermatozoa
3. Working of prostate gland.
4. Vitamin A metabolism
5. Healing of wounds
6. Enzyme catalyzed reactions as cofactor

20. • Deficiency:
1. Hepatic porphyria
2. Proteinuria
3. Delayed wound healing
4. Retarded genital development in men.

21. Trace element—
1. Iodine-
• Iodine is essential trace element.
• Normal human body contain= 10-12 mg of iodine, 70-80%
of this is present in thyroid gland.
• Functions
1) Iodine is essential trace element required for the
biosynthesis of thyroid hormones like thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3).
2) It is required for the normal growth and development of
body.
3) About one third of the total body iodine is in thyroid gland,
remaining is distributed in ovary, muscles, blood and all
tissues

22. • Source– Iodised salt, sea food
• Deficiency:
1.Goitre( Hypothyroidism): It is characterised by
enlargement of thyroid glands.
• Treatment-- Use of iodised salt is useful in this
condition.
2. Hyperthyroidism: elevated level of thyroid
hormones.

23. 2. Iron
Iron is required for---
1) Formation of Red Blood Cells
2) DNA synthesis
3) Formation of myoglobin.
4) Electron transport chain.
● Daily requirement— 10-15 mg / day by male & female
respectively.
● Dietary intake of iron is mainly in ferric form (Fe+++) . The action
of gastric HCl & some organic acid which liberate free ferric ion
(Fe+++) which are reduced to ferrous (Fe++) form by reducing
substance.
● Such Fe++ form are absorbed in upper intestinal tract.
● RBC are destroyed which lead to release of about 20-25 mg of
iron per day, this are reused for formation of new RBC.

25. • Deficiency –
• Hypochromic nutrition anaemia: Mostly seen in
children, adolescent girl, nursing mother.
• There is diminished oxygen carrying power of
blood due to low haemoglobin content
• Symptoms– Dizziness, breathlessness, oedema
of ankle, poor appetite.
• Treatment– Giving salt of ferrous preparation=
FeSO4, Ferrous ammonium citrate are given
orally.

26. 3. Copper—
• It is a co-factor in number of enzyme:
• Eg- tyrosine, ascorbic acid oxidase, cytochrome oxidase,
uricase, monoamine oxidase.
• It is widely distributed in all tissues.
• Daily requirement= 1 to 2 mg.
• Dietary copper is absorbed by active transport mechanism.
• Deficiency–
• wilson’s disease- homeostasis of copper lead to its
accumulation in liver, discrete area of brain & cornea of eye
& other tissue hepatolenticular damage of that organ.

27. 4. Manganese—
• Source= vegetables, nuts, tea, fruits, etc.
• Function—
• It act as co-factor for various enzymatic
reaction.
• It is involved in biosynthesis of long chain fatty
acid.
• It stimulate biosynthesis of cholesterol & fatty
acid.

28. 5. Cobalt
• Vit B12 contain cobalt.
• Daily requirement= 3mcg.
• It is synthesized by bacteria, intestinal flora
Functions
1. It acts as a co-factor for several enzymes
2. it is present in vitamin B12
3. It helps in erythropoiesis
• Diseases
1. Anaemia (deficiency of cobalt)
2. Polycythemia ( large amount of cobalt/ cobalt
toxicity.)

29. 6. Selenium–
• Function:
• It is involved in mitochondrial synthesis.
• It act as cancer protecting agent.

30. ❑ Water:-
• Water is very essential for living system.
• There is no life without water.
• Total body water accounts for 70% of body weight.
• However a loss of 10% of water in our body is serious
and a loss of 20% is fatal i.e. death.
• Therefore a balance should be maintained between
water intake and output.
Water intake source -
• 1) Drinking water (fluids of diet) -1500ml
• 2) Solid food -1000ml
• 3) Oxidation of carbohydrates , fats and protein- 300ml

31. Water loss from body -
• Water is lost continuously from the body in the following
ways.
1) via kidney as urine -1500ml
2) via skin as sweating -800ml
3) via lungs in expired air -400ml
4) via faeces -100 ml
5) Eyes via tears , etc.
• Water is used to eliminate toxic material from body which
are synthesized during metabolism such as ammonia, urea,
acids, etc.
• The excretion of water via urine is controlled by
mineralocorticoids hormones secreted by Adrenal glands.

32. Water balance in normal individual:
ml ml

33. • Properties of water:
1. Water is polar so it is very good universal solvent.
2. It act as good insulator & prevent heat loss from body.
3. It has high dielectric constant.
4. Water molecule interact with other molecule like
protein, sugars, ions, etc forming hydrogen bonds.

34. IMP terms
• Hypotonic = Water level more than electrolyte
(Na ion)
• Hypertonic = Water level less than electrolyte
(Na ion)
• Isotonic = same level of both water &
electrolyte

35. ❑ Define dehydration; explain types of dehydration.
• It is a condition characterized by water depletion in
the body
• There are three main types of dehydration:
1. Hypotonic (primarily a loss of electrolytes)
• It happens when the loss of sodium is greater than
water.
• The decrease in sodium leads to reduced tonicity and
so the extracellular fluid becomes hypotonic as
compared to the fluid within the cells.
• Causes:
• Diarrhoea and vomiting, Gastric obstructive diseases,
Heat stroke, Muscle damage, Burns

36. • Hypertonic (primarily loss of water)
• It occurs when the amount of water loss from the body
is more compared to the sodium loss.
• As a result, the sodium concentration in the cells and
extracellular fluid increases making it hypertonic.
• Cause: Water deprivation, Hyperventilation, Profuse
sweating, Diarrhoea in young children especially
infants, Diabetes insipidus
• Isotonic (equal loss of water and electrolytes).
• The patient loses water and salt from the body in equal
amounts and so the level of sodium in the extracellular
fluid remains the same and there is no change in the
tonicity.
• This is the commonest type of dehydration that is seen

37. • Causes: Isotonic dehydration is mostly a result of
severe diarrhoea and vomiting where the patient
loses a lot of water from the body.
• Other causes include cholera, excess sweating due
to very hot climate and profuse bleeding.
• Symptoms.
• Increased pulse rate, low blood pressure, sunken
eyeballs, decreased skin elasticity, lethargy,
confusion & ultimately coma.
• Treatment:
• Intake of plenty of water
• If a person can’t take orally water be given I.V. in an
isotonic solution (5%glucose)
• If dehydration is due to loss of electrolytes, then
electrolytes can be given orally or intravenously.

38. ❑ Treatment of dehydration--ORS
(Oral Rehydration Solution / Salts):
• is a type of fluid replacement used to prevent or
treat dehydration especially that is due to
diarrhoea.
• The therapy involves drinking water with modest
amounts of sugar and salt added.
• Mild to moderate dehydration in children is best
treated with ORT.
• Persons taking ORT should eat within 6 hours and
return to their full diet within 24–48 hours
• Oral rehydration therapy is commonly used to
treat cholera & other diarrhoeal diseases.

39. • Water in life process—
1. Body fluids
2. Electrolytes
3. Acid-base balance
1.Body fluids—
• It refer to body water dissolved substance like
protein, salts, metabolite, vitamins, etc
• It comprises of an average of 60% of total body
weight.
1. 70% of total body fluid is within cell is termed as
ICF.
2. Other 30% is present outside the cell is called ECF.

40. Distribution of H2O in body compartment

41. A) osmosis:
• It is water movement in & out of body
compartment.

42. B) Electrolyte—
• Electrolyte is a substance that ionizes when dissolved in
suitable ionizing solvents such as water.
• This are compound which on dissociation give ions.
• Electrolytes affect the amount of water in your body.
• Common electrolytes include: Calcium, Chloride,
Magnesium, Phosphorous, Potassium, Sodium
• Electrolytes can be acids, bases, and salts.
• Hence fluid balance , Water balance also implies
electrolyte balance.

43. • functions of electrolytes in life processes
1. Many of them are essential minerals
e.g. Na+
, K+
, Cl-
, Ca++
, Mg++
, Fe++
, PO4
- -
, SO4
- -
, etc.
They perform important role in our body.
2. Minerals maintain acid base balance, required
for normal cellular activities.
3. Electrolytes control osmosis & hence volume of
various body fluids.
4. They carry electrical current that allows
production of action potential & gradient
potential required for nerve impulse
transmission.

45. 1. Sodium (Na+
):
• Most common cation of ECF.
• Normal conc. = 136-142 mEq/Lit.
• It is required for conduction of action potential
& for electrolyte balance.
• It is controlled by Antidiuretic hormone (ADH),
aldosterone (absorb Na) & atrial natriuretic
peptidase [(ANP)= increasing glomerular
filtration & increase renal excretion of Na by
increasing sodium outflow ].
• Plasma Na increases with ADH & aldosterone &
decreases with ANP.

46. • Clinical Application–
1.Hyponatremia (loss of sodium)-
1. Excessive perspiration
2. Vomiting & diarrhoea
3. Diuretic drug
4. Burn wounds.
• Symptoms- muscular weakness, dizziness, headache,
tachycardia result into mental confusion , stupor & comma.
2. Hypernatremia (increase in sodium ion conc.)-
1. Water loss,
2. Water deprivation,
3. Sodium gain
• It lead to hypertonicity of ECF, it lead to cellular
dehydration.

47. • Symptoms: Intense thirst, fatigue, restlessness
& comma.
2. Chloride (Cl-
) :
• ECF anion.
• It is imp in balancing osmotic pressure,
because it can easily diffuse between ICF &
ECF through Cl-
channel present between cell
membrane.
• Hypochloremia- is caused due to –
1. vommiting,
2. drhydration,
3. consumption of diuretics.

48. • It causes alkalosis & depressed respiration.
3. Potassium (K+
):
• It is intracellular cation.
• It is required for resting potential, cardiac functioning &
regulation of pH.
• Mineralocorticoid & Aldosterone are required for regulating
potassium conc.
• Hypokalemia– ( Level of K+
)
• Caused by: Vomiting, Diarrhoea, High sodium intake, kidney
malfunctioning.
• Symptoms: cramps, flaccid paralysis, nausea, mental
confusion, urine output, Change in Electrocardiogram.

49. • Hyperkalemia:
• Irritability, anxiety abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, weakness,
abnormal sensation.
• Prolonged hyperkalemia causes fibrillation of heart.
❑ Acid- Base Balance----
• pH of body fluid is 7.35- 7.45 & the regulation of pH is
called homeostasis of acid- base balance.
• pH of body fluid is kept constant with the help of following
mechanism:
I. buffer system
II. Exhalation of CO2
II. Acid excretion via kidney.

50. • i) Buffer :a) Carbonic acid & bicarbonate
buffer.
• It regulate pH of ECF when acid is produced.

51. B) Phosphate buffer—It regulate pH of ICF
• It consist of NaHPO4
-
& NaH2
PO4
• NaH2
PO4
NaHPO4
-
+
H+
C) Protein buffer-- CO

52. II) Exhalation of CO2
• CO2
+ H2
O H2
CO3
H+
+ HCO3
-
• H2
CO3
CO2
+ H2
O

55. HA H+
+ A-

56. Thank you