Biochemistry and clinical Pathology, (ER20-23T) minerals unit 9 D.Pharm 2nd Year.pptx

Unit-9 Minerals
Minerals: Types, Functions, Deficiency diseases, recommended
dietary requirements
Biochemistry (ER20-23T)
.

MINERALS
Introduction
The mineral elements constitute only a small proportion of the body
weight. There is a wide variation in their body content. For instance,
calcium constitutes about 2% of body weight while cobalt in our body
0.00004%. The mineral performs several vital functions which are
absolutely essential for the very existence of the organism. These includes
calcification of bone, blood coagulation, neuromuscular irritability, acid-
base equilibrium, fluid balance and osmotic regulation. Certain minerals
are integral components of biologically important compounds such as
hemoglobin (Fe), thyroxine (I), Insuline (Zn), and Vitamin B12(Co).
Sulphur is present in thiamine, biotin, lipoic acid and conenzyme A.
Several minerals participate as cofactors for enzymes in various
metabolism process (Mg.Mn,Cu,Zn,K). Some elements are essential
constituents for certain enzymes regulation of enzymatic
reactions(Co,Mo,Se)

MINERALS
Functions of minerals are as follows:
1) Balancing Function: Some minerals act against the harmful effects of
other nutrients, thus balance each other.
2) Maintenance of Osmotic Pressure: Several minerals are present in organic
or inorganic form to regulate the organic pressure of the cell.
3) Influencing the pH of Cell Sap: Different anions and cations influence the
pH of cell sap.
4) Construction of Plant Body: Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen help to
construct the plant body by entering protoplasm and constitution of the
wall.
5) Catalysis of Biochemical Reaction: Certain elements, like zinc,
magnesium, calcium and copper, act as metallic catalysts in biochemical
reactions.
6) Effects of Toxicity: Certain minerals, like arsenic and copper, have a toxic
effect on the protoplasm under specific conditions.

MINERALS
Classification-
The mineral classified into two types principal and trace
elements. The principal elements constitute in our body is 70-
80% of the body in the form of inorganic material. These are
calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodum, potassium, chloride
and sulphur. These elements are required in amounts greater than
100mg/day. The trace elements are required in amounts less than
100mg/day.
They are sub divided into three categories.
1. Essential trace elements: Iron, copper, iodine, manganese,
zinc, molybdenum, cobalt, fluorine, selenium and chromium.
2. Possibly essential trace elements : Nickel, vanadium,
cadmium and barium.
3. Non-essential trace elements: Aluminum, lead, mercury,
boron, silver, bismuth.

MINERALS
PRINCIPAL ELEMENT (MACROELEMENTS)
01] Calcium-
Calcium is the most abundant mineral found among in the body. The total
content of the calcium in an adult man 1-1.5 kg. Our body content 99% of
these elements in association of the bones and teeth. A later small fraction is
found outside the skeletal muscle and tissue to perform wide function
Function of calcium-
1. Calcium continues strengthening the bones of humans until they reach
the age of 20-25 when bone density is highest. After that age, bone
density declines, but calcium continues to help maintain bones and slow
down bone density loss, which is a natural part of the aging process.
2. Calcium regulates muscle contraction, including the beating of the heart
muscle. When a nerve stimulates a muscle, calcium is released; it helps
the proteins in muscle carry out the work of contraction. The muscle
only relaxes again once the calcium is pumped back out of the muscle.

MINERALS
01] Calcium-
Function of calcium-
03. Calcium plays a key role in normal blood coagulation (clotting). The
process of clotting is complex with a number of steps( ca2+ factor IV).
04. Calcium is a co-factor for many enzymes; this means that without the
presence of calcium ,these important enzymes cannot work as efficiently.
05. ca2+ is necessary for the transmission of nerve impulses.
06. Calcium serves as third messenger for the some hormones. e.g. ADH
acts through Camp and then ca2+
Sources: Milk, beans leafy vegetables, fish, cabbage, egg yolk.

MINERALS
01] Calcium-
Factors affecting calcium absorption-
1. Vitamin D (Calcitrol) induces the synthesis of calcium binding protein
in the intestinal epithelial cells and promotes calcium absorption.
2. Parathyroid hormones enhances the Ca absorption through the
increased synthesis of calcitrol.
3. Acidity such as low PH is more favorable for calcium absorption.
4. Lactose promotes the calcium uptake by intestinal cells.
5. The amino acids lysine and arginine facilitate Ca absorption.

MINERALS
01] Calcium-
Dietary requirements-
age 1-3 years: 700 milligrams (mg) per day
age 4-8 years: 1,000 mg per day
breast-feeding or pregnant teenager: 1,000 mg per day
breast-feeding or pregnant adult: 1,000 mg per day
age 51-70 years (male): 1,000 mg per day
age 51-70 years (female): 1,200 mg per day
age 71+ years: 1,200 mg per day

MINERALS
01] Calcium-
Disorders of calcium-
01] Hypercalcemia : It is condition in which the serum ca level (9-11 mg/dl) is elevated in
blood serum. This condition is associated with hyperparathyroidism caused by increased the
activity of parathyroid gland. The symptoms include lethargy, muscle weakness, loss of
appetite, increased myocardial activity.
02] Hypocalcemia : It is condition in which the serum ca level is decreased below 7 mg/dl.
This condition is associated with tetany. The symptoms of tetany include neuromuscular
irritability, spasms and convulsion. Hypoparathyrodism is associated with decrease in serum
Ca and an increase in serum phosphate.
03] Rickets: Rickets is a disorder of defective calcification of bones. This may be low
concentration of vitamin D in our body due to dietary deficierncies of calcium and phosphorus
or both. The concentration of serum Ca and P may be low or normal and occur in children.
04] Osteoporosis : Osteoporosis associated with demineralization of bone resulting in the
progressive loss of bone mass. This condition is highly associated with the over 60 year people
and both sexes are involved. It is most predominately occur in the postmenopausal women. In
this condition frequent bone fractures which are a major cause of disability among the elderly.

MINERALS
02] Phosphorus-
Our body contain about 1 kg of phosphate which are found in every cell of
the body. It is highly occurs in combination with Ca in the bones and teeth.
About 10 percent of body calcium is found in muscles and blood in
association with proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
Function of Phosphorus-
1. Essential for the development of bones and teeth.
2. It is highly used for formation and development of high energy
phosphate molecules. e-g. ATP, GTP.
3. Phosphorus is required for formation of the phospholipids,
phosphoproteins and nucleic acid (DNA & RNA).
4. It is essential components of several nucleotides. e.g. NAD, ADP, AMP,
NADP.

MINERALS
02] Phosphorus-
Source: Milk, cereals, leafy vegetables, meat, egg.
Dietary requirements : 800 mg/day for adult.
Disorder
01. Serum phosphate level is increased in hypoparathyroidism.
02. Renal disease serum phosphate level is increased.

MINERALS
03] Magnesium-
Magnesium is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in
the human body and is essential to all cells and some 300
enzymes. Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate
compounds such as ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of
enzymes require magnesium ions to function.
Function of Magnesium
1. It is required for the formation of bones and teeth.
2. Mg++ is main cofactor for several enzymes requiring ATP.
e.g Hexokinase, glucokinase, phosphofructokinase,
adenylate cyclase
3. Mg++ is necessary for neuromuscular function.

MINERALS
03] Magnesium-
Sources: Cereals, nuts, beans, vegetables (cabbage,
cauliflower) meat milk and fruits.
Dietary requirements: 350 mg/day
Disease state:
1. Neuromuscular irritability
2. Convulsion and weakness.
3. Low levels observed in uremia, rickets and abnormal
pregnancy.

MINERALS
04] Sodium-
Sodium is principal element in our body. It is extracellular fluid. About 50% of
body sodium is present in bones, extracellular fluid and soft tissue.
Function of Sodium
1. Sodium regulate Acid-Base balance in association with the chloride and
bicarbonate.
2. Sodium maintains osmotic pressure and fluid balance.
3. Sodium involved in the intestinal absorption of glucose, galactose and
amino acid.
4. Sodium maintains heart beat.
Sources: The common salt (NaCl) used in the cooking medium is the major
source beside of nuts, beans, vegetables ( cabbage, cauliflower) meat, milk and
fruits.
Dietary requirements: 5-10 g/day consumed in the form of NaCl.

MINERALS
04] Sodium-
Disease state
01] Hyponatremia : It is condition in which the serum sodium
level falls below the normal range (Normal range 135-145 mEq/l).
This condition is occur due to diarrhea, vomiting, chronic renal
disease.
02] Hypernatremia :It is condition in which the serum sodium
level elevated above the normal range (Normal range 135-145
mEq/l). This condition is occur due increase blood pressure,
Cushing's syndrome, prolonged administration of cortisone.

MINERALS
05] Potassium-
Potassium is intracellular cation. It is equally important in the
extracellular fluid for specific functions.
Function of Potassium-
1. Potassium maintains intracellular osmotic pressure
2. They maintain Acid-Base balance.
3. Glycolysis cycle require K+ for enzyme pyruvated dependent
activity.
4. Potassium require for transmission of nerve impulses.
5. It is require for proper biosynthesis for the ribosome's.
6. They influence the cardiac muscle activity.
Sources: Orange, banana, pineapple, potato, chicken liver.

MINERALS
05] Potassium-
Dietary requirements: 3-4 g/day
Disease state-
01] Hypokalemia : Decrease in the concentration of serum
potassium is observed due to over activity of adrenal cortex,
prolonged cortisone therapy, treatment of diabetic coma with
insulin. The symptoms include irritability, muscular weakness,
tachycardia, cardiac arrest.
02) Hyperkalemia : Increase in the concentration of serum
potassium is observed due to renal failure, addisons disease,
diabetic coma, severe dehydration, intravenous administration of
fluids with excessive potassium salts. The symptoms include
depression of the central nervous system, mental confusion,
numbness, reduced heart sound finally cardiac arrest.

MINERALS
06] Chlorine-
Chlorine is a constituent of sodium chloride in the form of table salt. In our
body metabolism of sodium and chlorine are intimated related.
Function of Chlorine-
1. They maintain acid-base balance in association with sodium.
2. They maintain osmotic pressure.
3. Chloride is necessary for the formation of HCI in the gastric juice.
4. Enzyme salivary amylase activated by chloride.
Sources: Sodium chloride cooking salt, whole grains, eggs and milk
Disease state
01] Hypochloremia : Decrease in the concentration of plasma chloride is
observed due to vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory alkalosis.
02] Hyperkalemia : Increase in the concentration of plasma chloride is
observed due to dehydration, respiratory acidosis and cushings syndrome.

MINERALS
TRACE ELEMENT (MICROELEMENTS)
01] Iron-
Iron is essential constituent of hemoglobin and certain enzymes such as
cytochrome oxidase, catalase and peroxidase. Iron is essential for the formation
of hemoglobin in red blood cells; hemoglobin binds oxygen and transports it
around the body. Iron is also an essential component in many enzyme reactions
and has an important role in the immune system. In addition, it is required for
normal energy metabolism and for the metabolism of drugs and foreign
substances that need to be removed from the body.
Function of Iron
1. To transport oxygen to tissue through Hb.
2. To take part in oxidation reduction reactions.
3. It also involved in the process of cellular respiration.
4. The non-heme component of iron is also utilized in the structure of
xanthine dehydrogenase and succinate dehydrogenase and also in iron-
sulphur, proteins of the respiratory chain.
5. Iron is associated with effective immune competence of the body.

MINERALS
01] Iron-
Sources: Liver, red meat, pulses, nuts, eggs, dried fruits, poultry, fish, whole grains and
dark green leafy vegetables.
Disease state-
01] Iron deficiency anemia: Iron deficiency anemia is a common type of anemia in this
condition blood lacks adequate healthy red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to
the body's tissues. As the name implies, iron deficiency anemia is due to insufficient
iron. Without enough iron, your body can't produce enough of a substance in red blood
cells that enables them to carry oxygen (hemoglobin). As a result, iron deficiency
anemia may leave you tired and short of breath. A lack of dietary iron depletes iron
stores in the body and this can eventually lead to iron deficiency anemia. In particular,
women of child bearing age and teenage girls need to ensure they consume adequate
dietary iron because their requirements are higher than those of men of the same age.
Also, loss of blood due to injury or large menstrual losses increases iron requirements in
the short term.
02] Haemosiderosis: This is a less common disorder and is due to excessive iron in the
body. It is commonly observed in subjects receiving repeated blood transfusions over the
year. e.g. hemolytic anemia, hemophilia.

MINERALS
02] Copper-
Copper is the third most abundant dietary trace metal after iron
and zinc. It is a component of many enzymes and is needed to
produce red and white blood cells. The body also needs copper to
utilize iron efficiently and it is thought to be important for infant
growth, brain development, the immune system and for strong
bones.
Function of copper
01. Copper is essential constituents of several enzymes and they
proceed various metabolic reaction in body.
02. Copper is necessary for the synthesis of hemoglobin.
Sources: shellfish, liver, kidney, nuts and wholegrain cereals.

MINERALS
02] Copper-
Disease state
01] Wilson's disease: It is rare disorder of abnormal copper
metabolism and characterized by the following manifestations. In
this condition the copper deposited in abnormal amounts in liver
and lenticular nucleus of brain. This may lead to hepatic cirrhosis
and brain necrosis. Administration of penicillamine a naturally
occurring copper chelating agent is used for the treatment of
Wilson's disease.

MINERALS
03] Iodine-
Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones,
thyroxin and triidothyronine, which are vital regulators of
metabolic rate and of physical and mental development.
Sources: Seafood's, drinking water, vegetables, fruit.

MINERALS
03] Iodine-
Disease state
01] GOITER : This condition is caused by deficiency of Iodine, characterized
by enlargement of thyroid gland. Iodine require for the formation of thyroxin
and triidothryonine hormone of thyroid gland. If the treatment is delay the
enlargement of thyroid gland is occur.
Symptoms
01.A visible swelling at the base of your neck that may be particularly obvious
when you shave or put on makeup.
02. A tight feeling in your throat
03.Hoarseness
04.Difficulty swallowing
05.Difficulty breathing
Treatment: Goiter can be prevented by regular use of Iodide salt or lodide
added to the drinking water in the concentration of 1:5000 to 1:20000.

MINERALS
04] Zinc-
Zinc: It is pervasive in nature and is essential for many other
enzymes (carboxypeptidase,liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and
carbonic anhydrase) to complete their metabolic processes.
Around 2.3gm zinc is found in the body, of which 80-110mg/dl is
present in the plasma. High concentrations of zinc are found in
choroid of eyes, prostate, kidneys, liver, and muscles.
The chief sources of zinc are meat, liver, seafood, eggs,
vegetables, and whole grams (less available due to phytates).
Around 5mg of zinc is required per day for a pregnant woman.

MINERALS
04] Zinc-
Functions
i) There are around 300 zinc-containing enzymes, - e.g, lactate
dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase, alkaline phosphatase and
carboxypeptidase.
ii) It is also found in cytosolic superoxide dismutase which contains copper
also.
iii) It helps in the production of DNA and proteins.
Zinc Deficiency: Zinc is required for metabolic functions of the body. It is also
important for proper 8rown and development during pregnancy, childhood, and
adolescence. The symptoms of zinc deficiency are loss of appetite, taste or
smell, decreased function of immune system, and retarded growth. Severe zinc
deficiency causes diarrhoea, hair loss, impotence, and can also prolong the
wound healing process.

MINERALS
05] Flourine-
Fluoride is mostly found in bones and teeth. The beneficial effects
of fluoride in trace amounts are overshadowed by its harmful
effects caused by excess consumption.
Function of Fluorine:
1. Fluoride prevents the development of dental caries. It forms a
protective layer of acid resistant fluroapatite with
hydroxyapatite of the enamel and prevent the tooth decay by
bacterial acids. Further fluoride inhibits the bacterial enzymes
and reduces the production of acids.
2. Fluoride is necessary for the proper development of bones.
3. It inhibits the activities of certain enzymes. Sodium fluoride
inhibits enolase enzymes.

MINERALS
05] Flourine-
Sources: Intake of less than 2ppm of fluoride will meet the daily
requirements. Drinking water is the main source.
Disease state
01] Dental Caries: It is clearly established that drinking water
containing less then 0.5 ppm of fluoride is associated with the
development of dental caries in children.
02] Fluorosis : Excessive intake of fluoride is harmful to the
body. An intake above 2 ppm in children caused mottling of
enamel and discoloration of teeth. The teeth are weak and become
rough with characteristic brown or yellow patches on their surface.
These manifestation are collectively referred to as dental fluorosis

MINERALS
06]Cobalt-
It is significant for the biosynthesis of vitamin B2 family of
coenzymes. The total body content of cobalt is around 1.1mg. It is
mainly absorbed from the small intestine. Around 0.26mg of cobalt is
eliminated per day through urine.
The main sources of cobalt are figs, cabbage, lettuce, spinach, and
animal products like liver and kidney.
Functions-
1) It is a constituent of vitamin B12 (around 4% of cobalt present). It
is also required for the production of haemoglobin.
2) It causes polycythaemia by either increasing or preventing the
destruction of erythropoietin hormone (secreted by the kidneys). It
may cause the development of macrocytic anaemia.

MINERALS
07]Manganese-
It acts as a cofactor of antioxidant enzymes (superoxidedismutase).
Around 30mg manganese is found in a healthy adult human body.
The chief sources of manganese are cereals, vegetables, tea and some
parts like liver, kidney, and muscle of the body.
Around 2-5mg of manganese is required per day for a healthy adult;
and about 0.5-2mg of manganese per day is required by children.

MINERALS
07]Manganese-
Functions-
i)Role in Animal Reproduction: Deficiency of manganese causes
sterility in animals and disturbance in citric acid cycle.
ii) Proteoglycan Synthesis: It promotes synthesis and deposition of
proteoglycans in many tissues, including bones due to glycosyl
transferase activity.
iii) Porphyrin Synthesis: It is a constituent of some porphyrins of
erythrocytes.
iv) Bone Growth: It is also required for bone growth and cholesterol
syntheses.
v) Acts as Cofactor: It acts as a cofactor for enzymes like arginase,
isocitrate dehydrogenase, and leucine aminopeptidase. Enzymes
containing manganese are hydrolases, kinases, decarboxylases, and
transferes.

MINERALS
08]Molybdenum-
It is necessary for xanthine oxidase and other related oxidases. However, deficiency
of molybdenum has not been yet observed in humans.
The chief sources of molybdenum are milk, beans, breads, cereals, liver, and
kidney.
Around 0.15-0.5mg of manganese is required per day for a healthy adult.
It is readily absorbed in GIT, and is excreted in urine and bile.
Functions
i) It takes part in uric acid metabolism.
ii) i) It is involved in the action of various enzymes:
a) It is found in several metallo-flavoproteins containing non-haeme iron (eg,
aldehyde dehydrogenase and xanthine oxidase).
b) Enzymes containing Mb participate in electron transfer.
iii) In trace amounts, it helps in the utilisation of copper, whereas in larger amounts
it diminishes the same.

MINERALS
09]Selenium-
It is necessary for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins). Around 5-15mg
selenium is found in the total body. It protects the cell from
destruction.
Its chief sources are liver, kidney, seafoods, meats, and grains.
Around 0.2mg of selenium per day is required for a healthy adult
and around 0.02-0.1mg per day for children.

MINERALS
09]Selenium-
Functions-
i) It is found in selenoproteins, e.g., glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase,
deiodinase, muscle selenoproteins, etc.
ii) It is an integral part of glutathione peroxidase, the following are the functions of it:
a) It guards vital cell components, for example, it protects cell membrane from hydrogen
peroxide and other peroxides.
b) It increases the action of superoxide dismutase which protects the cells against
superoxide (02-) and other free radicals.
iii) Selenium releases vitamin E in the following three methods:
a) Normal pancreatic function, and digestion and absorption of lipids including vitamin E,
b) Component of glutathione peroxidase, and
c) Helps in retention of vitamin E in the blood.
iv) It reduces the risk of certain cancers.
v) It helps in purine metabolism (thioredoxin reductase).
vi) It helps in sperm motility and muscle metabolism in the form of selenoproteins.

MINERALS
10]Sulphur-
It acts as an enzyme cofactor and also is an essential component of
cysteine and methionine (essential amino acids). Proteins contain
about 1%sulphur by weight. Sulphates are not used in the form of
inorganic sulphate salts of Na+, K+, and Mg++, yet it is present in
food. Amino acids containing sulphur are important constituents of
body proteins. The disulphide linkages keep polypeptide units
together, eg., insulin and immunoglobulin. In cartilages and bone,
sulphur is present in the form of chondroitin sulphates. Keratin
protein present in hair and nail is also a sulphur-rich protein. Many
enzymes and peptides contain -SH groups at the active site, e.g,
glutathione. Other compounds containing -SH group are thiamine,
biotin, lipoic acid, and CoA. Sulphates also take part in detoxification
mechanisms like the production of indoxyl sulphate.

MINERALS
Recommended Dietary Allowance For Minerals

Biochemistry and clinical Pathology, (ER20-23T) minerals unit 9 D.Pharm 2nd Year.pptx

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