This is assignment for students of Bpharma and Dpharma For biochemistry and topic is minerals

1. Faculty of
Pharmaceutical Sciences
Assignment : Minerals
Subject : Biochemistry

2. Contents :
• Minerals –
• 1.Phosphorous
• 2.Potassium
• 3.Sodium
• 4.Chlorine
• 5.Magnesium
• 6.Nickel
• 7.Lead

3. 1.Phosphorous (P)
• Sources - Protein foods such as lean meats; poultry; eggs; seafood; beans, peas, and
lentils; nuts and seeds; and soy products.
• RDA-adults (ages 19 years and older): 700 mg. children (ages 9 to 18 years): 1,250
mg. children (ages 4 to 8 years): 500 mg.
• Functions-adults (ages 19 years and older): 700 mg. children (ages 9 to 18 years):
1,250 mg. children (ages 4 to 8 years): 500 mg.
• Factors : The body needs phosphorus to build and repair bones and teeth, help
nerves function, and make muscles contract. Most (about 85%) of the phosphorus
contained in phosphate is found in bones.
• Diseases : A reduced concentration of phosphate in the blood serum is a disorder
known as hypophosphatemia. Phosphorus deficiency may cause bone diseases such
as rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. An improper balance of phosphorus
and calcium may cause osteoporosis.
• Treatment : magnesium or Vitamin D supplements, if your phosphorous is low. You
may also be ordered a medication to lower your blood calcium levels, if it is
elevated. Phosphate supplementation - Can be either intravenous (IV) with

4. 2. Potassium (K)
• Sources - Many fresh fruits and vegetables are rich in potassium . Bananas, oranges, cantaloupe, honeydew,
apricots, grapefruit (some dried fruits, such as prunes, raisins, and dates, are also high in potassium)
• RDA -there isn’t an RDA for potassium, organizations worldwide have recommended consuming at least
3,500 mg per day through food
• Functions -It helps your nerves to function and muscles to contract. It helps your heartbeat stay regular. It also
helps move nutrients into cells and waste products out of cells
• Factors – Catecholamine-Facilitates K+ entry into cells by stimulating cell-membrane Na+/K+ -ATPase
activity
• Diseases - Hypokalemia (deficiency ) hyperkalemia (excessive potassium.)
• Treatment - Calcium given into your veins (IV) to treat the muscle and heart effects of high
potassium levels.Glucose and insulin given into your veins (IV) to help lower potassium levels long enough
to correct the cause. Potassium supplements are generally prescribed for low potassium levels. If the situation
is severe, potassium might be given as an intravenous (IV) solution. If there is a condition that causes the
hypokalemia, such as low levels of magnesium or an overactive thyroid, the other condition must be treated
also.

5. 3. Sodium (Na)
• Sources - Dried beans and lentils, as well as unsalted nuts and seeds and 100% natural nut and seed butter
contain little sodium.
• RDA - on average about 3,400 mg of sodium per day. However, the Dietary Guidelines recommends limiting
sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day—that's equal to about 1 teaspoon of salt
• Functions - Sodium is found mainly in body fluids. It plays a major role in maintaining blood volume and blood
pressure by attracting and holding water. Sodium is also important in cellular osmotic pressure (the passage of
fluids in and out of the cells) and in transmitting nerve impulses.
• Factors - Sodium is found mainly in body fluids. It plays a major role in maintaining blood volume and blood
pressure by attracting and holding water. Sodium is also important in cellular osmotic pressure (the passage of
fluids in and out of the cells) and in transmitting nerve impulses.
• Diseases - Hypernatremia involves dehydration, which can have many causes, including not drinking enough
fluids, diarrhea, kidney dysfunction, and diuretic. Hyponatremia refers to a low level of sodium in the blood.
Hyponatremia or low sodium blood levels may result from excess fluid in the body relative to a normal amount
of sodium, or it may be due to a loss of sodium and body fluid caused by chronic conditions like kidney or
congestive heart failure.
• Treatment - Hypertonic saline is used to treat severe symptomatic hyponatremia. Patients should be
given intravenous 5% dextrose for acute hypernatremia or half-normal saline (0.45% sodium chloride) for
chronic hypernatremia if unable to tolerate oral water

6. 4. Chlorine (Cl)
• Sources -Chloride is found in table salt or sea salt as sodium chloride. It is also found in many
vegetables. Foods with higher amounts of chloride include seaweed, rye, tomatoes, lettuce,
celery, and olives. Chloride, combined with potassium, is also found in many foods.
• RDA - 3400 mg (in chloride form)
• Functions - The main function of chloride in the body is to maintain fluid balance.
In humans, chloride makes up a large majority of the extracellular fluids (fluid outside of the
cell). It is the major anion in the body, which also allows it to function as a principle
electrolyte in our bodies as well.
• Factors - Chloride is the primary anion in extracellular fluid. Chloride moves easily across
membranes following the sodium and potassium gradients. In addition to passively following
sodium and potassium, chloride has its own protein channels that reside in cell membranes.
These protein channels are especially abundant in the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and lungs
• Diseases - Cystic fibrosis, or CF, is one of the most prevalent inherited diseases in people of
European descent. It is caused by a mutation in a protein that transports chloride ions out of the
cell. Also salty skin , poor digestion and growth. Hypochloremia occurs when there's a low level of
chloride in your body. Breathing high levels of chlorine causes fluid build-up in the lungs, a
condition known as pulmonary edema. The development of pulmonary edema may be delayed for
several hours after exposure to chlorine. Contact with compressed liquid chlorine may cause
consuming more salt or through receiving IV fluids.

7. 5. Magnesium (Mg)
• Sources - Green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains, are
good sources [1,3]. In general, foods containing dietary fiber provide magnesium. Magnesium is
also added to some breakfast cereals and other fortified foods
• RDA - The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of magnesium for adults is 420 milligrams (mg)
per day.
• Functions - Magnesium is required for energy production, oxidative phosphorylation, and
glycolysis.
• Factors - Magnesium is required for energy production, oxidative phosphorylation, and
glycolysis.2
• Diseases - Magnesium deficiency can cause a wide variety of features
including hypocalcaemia, hypokalaemia and cardiac and neurological manifestations. Chronic low
magnesium state has been associated with a number of chronic diseases
including diabetes, hypertension, coronary heart disease, and osteoporosis.
• Treatment - reducing or avoiding calcium-rich foods two hours before or after eating magnesium-
rich foods, avoiding high-dose zinc supplements,treating vitamin D deficiency,eating raw
vegetables instead of cooking them ,quitting smoking.

8. 6. Nickel (Ni)
• Sources - the richest sources of dietary nickel are found in nuts, dried peas and beans,
whole grains, and chocolate). In addition, processing a food can increase
its nickel content.
• RDA - The recommended daily amounts of nickel are not fixed, but it is sugguested that
it is enough to intake about 100 micrograms per day. However, some studies show that it
can be consumed daily about 200-750 micrograms of nickel.
• Functions - The recommended daily amounts of nickel are not fixed, but it is sugguested
that it is enough to intake about 100 micrograms per day. However, some studies show
that it can be consumed daily about 200-750 micrograms of nickel.
• Diseases - Nickel deficiency is accompanied by histological and biochemical changes
and reduced iron resorption and leads to anaemia. It can disturb the incorporation of
calcium into skeleton and lead to parakeratosis-like damage, which finds expression in
disturbed zinc metabolism.
• Treatment - The body needs nickel, but in very small amounts. Nickel is a common trace
element in multiple vitamins.

9. 7.Lead (Pb)
• Sources – They found lead concentrations within vegetables grown in the allotments –
such as parsnips, carrots, leeks and onions – varied depending on the vegetable, but
was typically below national food safety guidelines
• Functions -Lead has no known biological function in the body and once
it enters the body, it is known to cause severe health effects that might
be irreversible. It affects almost all the major organ systems of the
body like hematopoietic, renal, nervous and cardiovascular systems.
• Diseases - Lead can harm production of blood cells and the absorption
of calcium needed for strong bones and teeth, muscle movements, and
the work of nerves and blood vessels. High lead levels can cause brain
and kidney damage.
• Treatment - The damage lead causes cannot be reversed, but there are medical
treatments to reduce the amount of lead in the body. The most common is a process
called chelation – a patient ingests a chemical that binds to lead, allowing it to be
excreted from the body. Chelation, though, is not without its risks.