Causes and Effects of Domestic Child Labor in Tanzania

ISSN 2162-691X(Online)
ASSESSMENT OF THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF
DOMESTIC CHILD LABOR AND ITS IMPACTS ON SOCIETY:
A CASE STUDY OF DAR ES SALAAM -TANZANIA
Honorina Munubi *
Abstract
Child labor has been a major global issue affecting children around the world (Hindman 2009).
Many children under the age of 18 are working in different sectors. The main reason for child
labor in many countries, particularly in third world, is lack of education which is caused by
poverty (Hindman 2009).This study attempts to assess the causes and effects of domestic child
labor employment and their impacts on society in Tanzania. In many countries, domestic service
has been predominantly done by adults (Hindman 2009). However, in Tanzania the situation is
quite different. The domestic work is done by children instead of adults because people think that
children are innocent and they can do what they are assigned to do by their masters without any
problems. Additionally, children tend to stay longer in the job without quitting and the cost of
labor is low compared to adult workers.The majority of these domestic child laborers have little
basic primary education, and most of them come from poor families in rural areas. Although the
Tanzanian government provides free education for all primary school education, education is
not really free. Parents have to pay some other fees in order for their children to attend school.
The additional expenses that parents have to pay include table and chair, examination fees, hoes
and axes. In terms of research methodology, the study used feminist qualitative research
methodology, which offers a critical lens in analyzing the problem of child labor in Tanzania.
The interviews and questionnaires were conducted in 2011with the children in Dar es Salaam,
the big city of Tanzania. The study found that there is neither a clear nor unified legal position
on the definition of a child domestic worker nor a well-defined position on employment status of
the children. The major causes of domestic child labor are poverty and poor education.
Key words: Child labor; Domestic child labor; Poverty
_____________________________________________________________________________
Correspondence:
Mumbi Mwangi (PhD)
Chief Editor
mmwangi@stcloudstate.edu

DOMESTIC CHILD LABOR/ Munubi 2
www.jghcs.info [ISSN 2162-691X (online)]JOURNAL OF GLOBAL GENDER STUDIES/VOLUME1, NUMBER1, 2013
ASSESSMENT OF THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF
DOMESTIC CHILD LABOR AND ITS IMPACTS ON SOCIETY:
A CASE STUDY OF DAR ES SALAAM -TANZANIA
Introduction
Child labor has been a big problem in the whole world (Hindman 2009). Most children
are suffering and most of them have experienced violence. The main reason for child labor is
lack of education which is caused by poverty (Bagley, and Mallick, 2000; Driscoll and Moole,
1999; Lieten, 2000).
Growing up in the family, whereby both parents worked in the government in Dar es
Salaam, I have experienced how these children have been treated within our house and within
our neighbors. In my childhood, we hired children as domestic workers. Some of them became
good friends of mine after leaving the job and going back to their region. Since when I was a kid,
I didn’t feel that our housemaid should be at home working while she is supposed to be in school
like us. Through this experience and curiosity, it forced me to research and see, why the problem
is still exist, and what can be done.
Tanzania is among many countries which have been affected by child labor. In the third
world during the colonial period in 1955, Tanzania was under British rule. At that time, the
government passed employment ordinance cap 366, which prohibited the employment of
children. This ordinance was amended by the Act No. 5 of 1969 which prohibited the
employment in any capacity of a child below the age of 15 years (Baquele, and Boyen, 1998).
Despite these laws to protect children, child labor still exists and in recent years has
increased in Tanzania. Many activists are working with the Tanzanian government, with full
support from International Labor Organization (ILO) and International Programme on the
Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC) which have been operating in Tanzania since 1995. This
study shows that there is still the evidence of the existence of child labor and child exploitation
in Tanzania (ILO/IPEC report 2010). The evidence from the study is based on small-scale
surveys and qualitative situational assessments that will be used for advocacy campaigns to
sensitize the general public on the consequences of child labor.
The Millennium Development Goals in Tanzania aims to reduce extreme poverty. Putting
all children into primary school and stemming the spread of infectious diseases such as
HIV/AIDS by 2015, have become globally accepted benchmarks of development, embraced by
donors, developing countries, civil societies and major development institutions.
Tanzania is one among many countries facing the challenges of reducing poverty.
Tanzania subscribes to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as the way of addresses
vision of poverty reduction through initiating and improving of human development. One of the
way the government of Tanzania has tried to address this is through provision of free primary
education, promoting gender equity, empowerment of women and improving environmental
sustainability through access to water and sanitation. Although to some extent Tanzania has been
successful in achieving goal, still there are several challenges such as child labor and poor
government policy that needed to be changed (Millennium development goal report 2005).

According to African societies, children are expected to contribute to society by
participating in several tasks in the household when growing up. The parents prepare their kids to
be respect and responsible in the society by assigning different types of work around the home
(Hindman, 2009). Although the African Charter advances the principles of child protection, it
should be noted that child participation in family duties may be used as an explanation of child
labor but the Charter specifically prohibits child labor.
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child is an international treaty that recognizes
the human rights of children. This convention defines a child as any person from age zero up to
18 years. In UN the Convention on the Rights of the Child Oct, 2004; article 41 it states that the
government must ensure that all children have protection without any discrimination.
Additionally children have to have access to social services such as education and
health care, to grow up in a respected environment, to understanding their society
and participate in society activities (Convention on the Rights of the Child Oct
2004).
Every country must aspire to recognize and implement the children’s rights. In 1959
United Nations Declaration based on the Rights of the Child set out the general principles thus:
any the child shall not be admitted to employment before an appropriate minimum age; he shall
in no case be caused or permitted to engage in any occupation or employment which would
prejudice his health or education, or interfere with his physical, mental or moral development
(Hindman 2009). Also in 1966, in the same provision the following statement was added:
‘Children and young people should be protected from economic and social exploitation
(Hindman 2009).
Every country has the duty to provide the appropriate regulation of hours and conditions
of employment and penalties for those who break the laws (UN Convention art 32). The ILO
recommended that, those children who are employed under the age of 18 should be under closer
supervision. But this article did not specify number of hours the child should work (Van Bueren,
International Rights of the Child). In addition to that, all children have the rights get to free
primary education (Art 28, The Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989). The Government
has the duty to provide free primary education (Van Bueren, International Law on the Rights of
the Child 234).
It has been noted that although there is a duty on the country to provide free primary
education, for many children living in developing countries like Tanzania, the reality is the
opposite. Many children would like to be able to attend primary and secondary education but
because of some factors such as the necessity to contribute to the family’s basic survival, the
distance of rural schools, traditional opposition to the education of girls and the imposition of
school fees, they are unable to receive even the minimum level of education (Levesque 1995).
Female children are among vulnerable group which considered to be burden and an
economic liability in the society. In many African tradition culture spending precious resources
on child girl is consider to be a useless investment. People beliefs that girl when she grown up,
she will be required to get married and be the part of husband’s family. This affects the families
with poor income where by Girls are the one who supposed to work and boys are the one
attending the school (Dakore, 2000).

Problem Statement and Justification
The research done by IPEC indicates that child labor is exploitative in nature, and is
becoming extensive due to the economic hardship (IPEC 2005). ILO/IPEC conducts programs
that target children who are working in hazardous conditions. The available statistics show that
children between the ages of 5 and 17 are employed in domestic service, mining, agriculture, and
child prostitution (ILO report 2010).
Domestic child labor phenomenon in Tanzania is another key issue that hinders
children’s rights to education. Tanzania is a signatory to the 1973 Minimum Age Convention,
which was ratified in December 1998, and the ILO 182 Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention
ratified September 12, 2001. Rajani (2000:7) noted that the situation of domestic child labor in
the homes of other families has been noted by NGOs as possibly the leading human rights
challenge in Tanzania today. Children, especially girls in Tanzania, end up as child domestic
workers for about 15 hours a day, and therefore, they are denied their rights to education. Dachi
and Garret (2003) argue that the employed child phenomenon cannot be reduced in Tanzania
unless poverty is eradicated among the society. Many families cannot afford to enroll their
children in an education system and cannot pay for other expenses. Therefore, this study aims to
investigate the causes and effects of domestic child labor employment in Dar es Salaam by
using stories from children.
The problem of child labor still exists in Tanzania despite of all these policies to protect
them. ILO and IPEC have been operating their programs since 1995. Their evidence indicates
that child labor is becoming out of control due to its poverty within the society. In Tanzania, it is
estimated that 47.8 percent of children are under the age of 18 and are engaging in domestic
work (National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty 2005). This study, therefore, seeks
to assess the causes of domestic child labor and its effects on the lives of children. Furthermore
the study will try to establish why child labor still exists despite the government efforts to protect
the children (ILO report, 2010).
Objective of the study
This research was intended to examine the problem of domestic child labor in Tanzania.
It seeks to explore the root causes and consequences of domestic child labor specifically in Dar
es Salaam. In focusing on the questions about why domestic child labor still exists, the major
goal of this research is to come up with specific recommendation that can be implemented in
Tanzanian society. Additionally the study suggests alternative solutions that can be implemented
to address the child labor problem in Tanzania and elsewhere.
Research questions
In line with the study objective, the research will be guided by the following key
questions
1. What are the factors which lead to domestic child labor in Dar es Salaam?
2. What kind of work is being done by domestic child laborers in Dar es Salaam?
3. What difficulties do domestic child laborers experience at the place of work?
These questions will also form the basis of establishing the scope of this research.

Location of study
This research was done in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania. The area was selected based on
the fact that this region has been experiencing problems of increasing child labor. Dar es Salaam
is the largest city in Tanzania and is located on a bay of the Indian Ocean. It has a population
estimated of around 2,500,000. As the largest city and higher population in Tanzania, Dar es
Salaam has substantial economic activities such as industries which produce food, beverages, oil,
textile, shoes, cement, clothes, aluminum products, and pharmaceuticals. Also it is Tanzania's
main port of entry for trade in imports and exports of such products like cotton, sisal, coffee,
diamonds and hides. Many people including children have migrated from all over the country to
Dar es Salaam for the purpose of looking for employment and a good life. As a result of
migration leads to intensive child labor existences.
Map of Tanzania showing location of study

Background
Child Labor Definitions
Edmonds defined child labor as any work that is harmful to person (Edmonds 2007)
.Also the Tanzania department of labor define child labor as “any economic activities performed
by a person who as under 15 years and which prohibit him/her From attending school” (p 7).
Child labor involves children being enslaved by being separated from their families, being kept
out of school and exposed to serious hazardous work such as too much sitting, standing, carrying
of too heavy weights and loss of sleep (Fuller, 1974). Child labor concerns all activities which
are done by children for the purpose of economic gain. Many children are engaged in economic
activities for low payment or no payment which are dangerous to their health.
Children are normally hired as household servants. This is especially true for girls and
sometimes for boys. When a child performs the normal work/domestic work at home, it is not
called child labor (Bhukuth 2008). Child labor is any work or employment which engages a child
to work more in order to attain basic needs for his or her family. The employment ordinance
defines child labor as any child below the age of fifteen years who is working. These children are
working for long hours with low wages under harmful conditions which destroy their physical
and mental development (Kihwelo 2006).
Therefore this study defines child labor as any economic activity which is done by a
person under the age of 18 which prevents child from attending school. Sub-Saharan Africa has
the highest numbers of children who are working as child laborers. Before September 2010, the
Tanzanian government had not yet implemented an effective national strategy to tackle this
problem, and as result the problem still exists.
Why Child Labor
Poverty is the main reason for children to work. Nearly by 48 percent of Tanzania’s
population of 34 million is considered to be basically poor and about 27 percent live in horrible
poverty and in households without sufficient income to meet basic nutritional requirements
(Child labor Photo Project website). Rural poverty is more explicit compared to urban areas. It
has been estimated that about 57 percent of rural populations live in poverty compared to urban
(IPEC Country Profile United Republic of Tanzania 2004).
The deterioration of living conditions in rural areas has also encouraged people to
migrate from rural to urban. Environment includes children and youth who are migrating to
urban areas in order to search jobs and end up as child laborers. Child workers come from poor
families. There are other factors in addition to poverty such as parental ignorance, which means
lack of knowledge about education of children, particularly girls. Therefore in order to eliminate
child labor, we first deal with the reduction of poverty (Wiener, 2009; Hindman, 2009).
International overview of child labor
Child labor has been a global issue which is caused by inadequate levels of education,
gender inequality, and health problems which leads to poverty (Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009). The
UN Convention of Children’s Rights states that child labor is dangerous and interferes the child’s

social development, education, health, physical, mental and spiritual development (Makhoul et
al. 2004). Children who come from poor families are the ones who get affected by poverty.
Poverty spreads from one generation to another. High birth rates and illiteracy also leads to
poverty (Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009). Children are engaged in working for the purpose of
increasing and supporting family income (Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009). A child’s income
supports up to one third of the total family income in Tanzania. Working children receive less
payment from their employees (Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009). Due to economic hardships many
children have been engaged in working. International bodies and governments in developing
countries have been spending a lot of money to fight child labor. In spite of this effort, the
number of child labors is still increasing.
According to ILO (2010), there are 250 million children working between 5-14 years
age. This number is not including female children. (Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009) The cases of
child domestic workers throughout the world are hidden. Children are hired and work in private
homes (Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009).
Working children are found all over the world. The majority of the working children are
found in Asia (61 percent) Africa (32 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean (7 percent). In
Africa 41% of children between 5-14 years are engaged in some form of economic activity
(;Human Right Watch 2010; UNICEF 2011). There are 90 percent of children who are employed
in different sectors (ILO Report 2010). Child labor still exists in most nations despite the
restrictions. The ILO reports that children are working longer hours with less payment (ILO
report 2010; Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009; Fuller, 1974; Weston, 2005).
Nature of Child Labor in Tanzania
In Tanzania, child labor work originates in rural areas where there are few resources and
due to economic hardship, most of children are forced to work (ILO/IPEC 2005). Children work
in agriculture sectors, mining sectors such as Tanzanite mines, and engage in gemstone brokering
and domestic services (ILO/IPEC 2010; Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009). Also children are engaging
in scavenging, fishing and quarrying ( Kadonya, Madihi, and Mtwana, 2002; Hindman, 2009).
Child domestic work has been hidden from the society perspectives. The employers try to
hide the issues by pretending they are helping the children rather than exploiting them. These
children face exploitation and most of them fall into prostitution when experiencing abuse from
their employers (Rau, 2002). In Zanzibar children also are working in tourism sectors, clove
plantations, domestic service and commercial sexual exploitation in tourist locations ( USD
Report 2007;). Child trafficking is also common in Tanzania. It is reported that girls are
trafficked and forced to work as domestic laborer in Oman, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Sweden,
the United Kingdom, United States and Europe (U.S. Department of State, “Country Reports”
2007).
Types of child labor existing in Tanzania
Commercial agriculture:
The hardship which faces rural areas in Tanzania forces many children to work in
agriculture sectors. These people need money to support themselves in their daily lives. Most of

children work on cash crops plantations known as tea, sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, sisal and
pyrethrum. These people are paid half of the adult wages (Hindman 2009).
The Mining sector
In Tanzania, Children are working in stone quarries, gold and gemstone mining without
any protection with low payment. These children do different work such as breaking rocks with a
hammer, scavenging materials, washing, and sifting, filling sacks and running errands for adults.
These children are paid low wages compare to adult wage. Due to this work, most children are
not attending to school, and even drop out of school (Nesi, 2008; Hindman, 2009).
Child traffic and rape
Girls and a few boys between seven years old have been reported to be the victim of
commercial sexual exploitation. The ILO reported that, in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and
Rwanda, children have been involved in the pornographic film production (U.S. Department of
State, Country Reports- 2003) In Tanzania children are trafficked from rural areas for
exploitation in the big cities, working as domestic workers with low compensation. Children also
have been trafficked from Tanzania to outside countries for the aim of forced labor (U.S.
Department of State, Country Reports- 2003).
Child Domestic Workers
Domestic Child workers are people who are under 18 years old, and who are working in
other households by doing domestic work such as child care, keeping the garden, running shops
and helping their employers to run small businesses. These children are living within the house
as part of the family. In this situation, the child works but is not considered as a worker, living as
part of a family, but not treated as a family member (Hugh, 2009; Wiener, 2009).
Many children especially in Tanzanian culture still believe that girls were born to work,
to enter into marriage and bring worth to the family. Tanzanian culture allows girls to work when
assigned by parents, elders or guardians in the community, without regard to what kind of work
the child will be doing or assigned. What matters is income for them (ILO Report, 2009).
Children become domestic workers because the practice is seen as normal and, indeed, beneficial
for girls who will one day become wives and mothers. Parents believe that a daughter working
for a wealthier family might bring opportunities for her own family. In many cases employers
believe that they are treating these children as part of the family (Hindman, 2009).
In urban areas, domestic child labor is one of the most exploited where girls are more
vulnerable than boys. Families recruit girls from rural to urban by using friends, agents and
families. It has been estimated that out of the total of 11,965,146 children between 5-17 years in
Tanzania, 4,735,528 have worked in economic activities, and 5,721,496 are engaged in domestic
working.
Dar es Salaam is the major city in Tanzania. This is the one of the main employment
centers for child domestic workers. Most girls and boys are coming from rural districts to cities.
It has been estimated that, 82.2% of children lives in Dar es Salaam engaged in domestic
working. Most of the children who are engaged in domestic activities are between the ages of 10-
14 years, which is equal to 42.9% and children 5-9 years old is equal to 42.8%. Female children

are the ones who did mostly the domestic work compared to male children (IPEC 2001). These
children are expected to be hard working, obedient to their employers and strong. Many children
migrate to the city including Dar es Salaam in order to work as house girls or house maids. Some
of them come after completing primary school and some of them before. Some children face the
problems like physical, emotional and verbal abuse (sexual exploitation of children in east and
South Africa 2004-2010).
Historical Background of the Child Labor Law in Tanzania
In Tanzania the Child Labor Legal Law was established in 1955 under the employment
ordinance Cap 366. According to this law, the minimum working age was 12 years. Children
between the ages of 12-14 were paid every day after work. In order to be employed, children
were supposed to get permission from their parents. This law prohibits children from working in
industries where they use running machines (Child Labor Law in Tanzania act 21). During 1969
there was another amendment which raised the minimum working age to 15, instead of 12-14.
In 2004, the Employment and Labor Relations Act introduced another law in order to
protect children. It was argued that children between 14 and 17 years of age were supposed to
engage only in easy/light duties and work that would not interfere with school and their studies.
Also they were not allowed to work in mines, factories or agriculture. Any employers who broke
this law were supposed to pay a fine of $2.5 to $5.00, and spend up a year in prison according to
the policy (ILO Report 2010).
The Tanzanian law of 2009 prohibits any child who is under 18 years old to be recruited
into the military, be employed in mines, factory, ships or other work which seems to be a
hazardous engaging in sexual activities (Tanzania child soldier’s global report, 2004; GT, Sexual
offences July, 1998; Hindman 2009).
Feminism and Child Labor
Feminists believe that there should be equality in any society. Feminist beliefs are
therefore, based on equality, opportunity, activism and empowerment. Feminism as a lens
through which the experiences of women and other marginalized group are viewed is useful for
focusing on particular phenomenon, for example child labor (Mwangi 2009).
Feminists aim to create changes in the society. This can be done through developing
special relationships with the people studied, such as domestic laborers (Reinharz, 1992).
Feminist research is about narrative, so the researchers try to look at the narrative and learn from
the society about the problems and find solutions (Mwangi 2009). Feminists emphasize on
experiences, which are considered as significant indicators of reality (Harding, 1987). By using
narratives, feminists are not only creating knowledge but also use the process for empowerment
them. Feminists’ use of narrative stories as sources of data helps the society to understand the
reality of their everyday experiences (Riessman 2008).
Many child workers are facing problems in our society, and feminists try to find the ways
in which they can solve those problems, such as working. The feminist ideal of equality and

collaboration can be successful in looking at the ways to understand and improve the plight of
children (Mwangi 2009).
Everyday life history is a process through which people can transform the social
conditions of their lives (Bech Jørgensen 1991). Listening to children’s lived history experiences
is an invaluable way to fully understanding child laborers’ lives and find the way to help them
(Mwangi 2009). Through focusing on the lives of [domestic children] and their experiences and
stories, feminism implies an epistemic gain in using narratives as domestic children’s ways of
knowing (Mwangi, 2009 p 37). The central project of this life history narrative is to break the
barriers of enslavement on the ideas and voice by amplifying the [children’s] voices (Mwangi
2009. P 38).
The story telling in Africa was inherent from their tradition, because during early years,
there were not any provisions of written documents. The stories were used to convey the
messages from one generation to another within the society (Mwangi, 2009. p. 37). In telling the
stories, child laborers make their lives visible experiences with meaning around them and work
to find their real identity. They express their problems, reflect and find the solutions to them
(Bloom, 1998. p. 150).
Current Government Policies and Programs to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor
Tanzania’s National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) is a national
organizing framework which focuses on poverty reduction on country agenda. The NSGRP has
been working hard in order to make sure that child labor abuse ends. They are emphasizing on
poverty reduction. NSGRP is committed to millennium development goals which targets for
reducing poverty, hunger, diseases, illiteracy, and discrimination against women which are the
causes of child labor (NSGRP, 2005; ILO/IPEC Report, 2005).
Child Labor and Education
Education plays a big role in the social and economic development of any society. Every
child needs to be educated and become productive in his or her adulthood. A primary and
secondary education, especially for girls, gives high performance in the society. The ILO has
been trying to set a minimum age for different types of work for children. Many other countries
are also introducing further legislative or regulatory provisions on child labor, and some have
recently increased the penalties for violations (Mark, 1997). The main obstacle to effective legal
protection remains the weakness of law enforcement mechanisms. Working children are
typically found in agriculture, domestic service, mining and other informal sectors. Most of them
work where labor law enforcement is mostly absent. Strong legislation and effective enforcement
are important but need to be supplemented by efforts on other fronts as well (Mark, 1997).
Even though primary education in Tanzania seems to be free, in reality it is not free.
There are small costs like examination fees and stationary fees, such as exercise books, text
books, pencils, pens and uniforms. The families who are poor and have financial problems
cannot afford this, which leads children to drop out of schools and engage in working activities.
The parents of these children have no other option other than supporting their children and
encouraging them to work and earn money in order to support the family to some extent
(Hindman, 2009).

The Education Act of 1978 requires that every parent should send their child to school.
Only one who fails to do that is counted as a criminal. In order to avoid those charges, when the
child is seven years old, the parents send their children far from home to relatives who use these
children as domestic workers. It is known that most of the children who are working as domestic
workers have no education.
The educational policy of 1995 in the Tanzania Development Vision 2025 emphasizes
the important of education “to promote the acquisition and appropriate use of literary, social,
scientific, vocational, technological, professional and other forms of knowledge, skills and
understanding for the development and improvement of man and society.” The vision statement
intends to motivate Tanzanians to be equipped and capable to function well in the global
economy while solving daily Tanzanian challenges (more detail http://www.moe.go.tz). The
policy also requires the country to promote a quality formal and informal education, promote
equality and access to basic education, advance the use of science and technology in teaching
and learning while putting more emphasizes on a special group of people such as girls and
children with disabilities.
Women's rights and protection of the girl child
During the convention on the rights of the child in the General Assembly, some of the
people argued that children did not need a special treaty to protect their rights because existing
international human rights treaties already protected those rights. The convention on the Rights
of the Child makes it clear on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
[Women's Convention]. Some of the people argue that the Women's Convention applies to all
females, and therefore, it also protects the interests of the girl child. This argument fails to
withstand the test of comparison. Looking at the Women's Convention, we can see that few of
the people address the girl child's needs. The primary obligation of Women's Convention is to
pursue a "policy of eliminating discrimination against women" (Women's Convention, supra
note 31, at art 2).
HIV/AIDS and Child Labor
The HIV/AIDS epidemic also forces most of the children to engage in child labor, due to
the loss of their parents and lack of support from family members. Thus the prevalence of child
employment is nearly 9 percent in Tanzania, (ILO report 2010). HIV/AIDS causes nearly a
million children to become orphans, and others have been engaged in working in order to support
themselves.
Child labor continues to be a global issue due to HIV/AIDS. Millions of people have died
and left their kids alone. Millions of children have become orphans due to the death of their
parents. Furthermore, children fail to complete their education and engage in working for their
survival due to lack of support. Some children are working in order to support and sustain their
parents who are sick with HIV. Most of the girls engage in prostitution as the means of getting
income. Children who engage in prostitution are at risk of getting HIV/AIDS (Bill, 2002; ILO
Report 2010).
This disease has seriously caused poverty within the society. Many children have now
lost both parents, and their relatives cannot handle the growing number of orphans. Relatives are
not able to help the orphans due to economic hardship, which leads to focus on their own family.
As a result there is rapid increase in the number of abandoned children, including HIV/AIDS

orphans, who eventually run away from their homes in search of work in order to survive for
themselves. It has been approximated that Tanzania has one million children who are HIV/AIDS
orphans (ILO/IPEC, 2009).
Method
Feminist Qualitative Methodology
Feminist qualitative research methodology was used as a methodological and conceptual
framework for this study. Feminist qualitative research is characterized by an emphasis on
individuals’ lives and the significance of their everyday experiences. According to Mwangi
2009, “by placing [children] at the center of the analysis, they will become not only subject of
the study, but also co-creators of knowledge” (p 33). Feminist qualitative research methodology
is also transformative and has a strong political and ideological commitment toward changing the
positions of children and therefore, changing the society (Mwangi, 2009). Through this feminist
research, I was able to explore and amplify narratives of domestic child workers in order to
understand their experiences through personal stories.
Feminist research deals with different issues that involve marginalization in the society.
Children are among the vulnerable groups whose issues have had very little attention in society.
Children’s needs are not heard. By exploring children’s voices this research helps to bring to the
attention the changes that work for the betterment of children and society.
In addition feminist research methodology believes that there should be equality between
genders. Through this feminist study, I critique male dominated social structure in the society
and highlight the need to explore alternative social paradigms (Reinharz, 1992). Male
domination reflects specific favor available to boys compared to girls. For example, in Tanzania
boys tend to attend schools and girls are the one who do the domestic work. This gender
disparity attests to the large number of girls involved in domestic child labor in Tanzania.
Locating myself as the researcher
Feminist researchers believe that the researcher cannot separate her/himself from the research
itself and the researched. Locating myself as a researcher exploring the effect of child labor in
Tanzania is important because I was born and raised in rural Tanzania. I have a first-hand
experience of living in a community where child labor is prevalent
Additionally as an international student of Social Responsibility master’s program, social activist
courses such as feminist research have encouraged me to connect my experiences with children
who come from poor families in rural Tanzania. Feminist research encourages the inclusion of
the researcher’s experiences in the research process, and explores the knowledge that might have
been hidden from the eyes of the society. The Social Responsibility program helped me to
understand the inter-connectedness between social justice and human rights from the local to the
global dimension. In the program I also learned to identify and seek to eliminate those forces
which shape inequalities, oppression, discrimination and poverty within the society. In addition

to my feminist research and methodology class, I have also expanded my practical skills in
problem solving through activism.
The problems of child abuse, child labor and poor health care for children are common in many
settings. 82.2% of children live in Dar es Salaam engaged in domestic working (IPEC 2001). The
poor economic system forces many children to work and help support their families. Tanzania
has a large number of children who are actively engaged in regular work despite the child labor
laws, which are not enforced. The very legislation that should prevent child labor and insure
that children receive an education in reality does little to reduce the abusive practices. This is
why I decided to do my thesis on the impact of child domestic labor in Tanzania.
Research Process
Case study
Because the study hoped to look specifically at the problem of domestic child labor in
Tanzania, case study method was used. Case study is a method which focuses on studying social
specific phenomena by thoroughly analyzing the issue and the context (Reinharz, 1992). I used a
case study approach because it yielded the kind of data that revealed in details the problem of
child labor in Tanzania. This case study also helped to illuminate the problem and bring attention
to the child labor problem.
Choosing Respondents
Children
The researcher selected fifteen (15) children who are working as domestic laborers,
where ten (10) were girls and five (5) were boys. I chose fifteen (15) working children due to
limited time. Most of these children have not been able to attend school from the age of seven (7)
up to the age of seventeen (17).
Snowball sampling was used in this study. The researcher selected a family neighbor
where she knows that, there was a child who was working as domestic laborer. Then I asked that
neighbor to help identify other individuals who are working also. Every interview for every child
took one hour. All these conversations were recorded. The research was conducted within the
house where the children were working.
Office of Ministry of Children, health and Home Affairs
The researcher selected four (4) people who are working at Ministry of Children and
Home Affairs. Three (3) respondents were women and one (1) was a man. The questionnaires
distributed were open ended. This allowed the respondents the freedom to include more
information that they felt was important to them.

Data collection
Interview
In this study the researcher interviewed children who were working as domestic workers.
One on one interviews were used asking the questions to children and encouraging them to tell
their stories. The researcher recorded all these conversations. In addition to doing the interview, I
also recorded such observation as physical appearance, the way they answered the questions,
how they dressed and other temperaments.
Questionnaires
The researcher used an open ended questionnaire for Officials of Ministry of Children,
health and Home Affairs. I made an appointment with the respondents and handed out the
questionnaire. I went back and collect the questionnaire the following day.
Data Analysis
Transcription: The researcher transcribed the data and then coded the data to look for
themes. The researcher used themes to analyze data related to the issue of child labor. The
identified patterns were expanded in order to understand child labor. The researcher looked for
the repeated patterns of words or phrases and put them together, then formulated theme
statements to develop a story line.
Results
This area deals with presentation of data, description and discussion of the result relevant
to the problem and themes. The sections in this chapter are organized and presented according to
research objectives stipulated in chapter one. The themes were identified through the process of
data analysis.
Gender, Age and Family
According to my data the largest group of domestic children is those between 10-17 years of age.
75% of children who were interviewed were girls and 25 were boys who are engaged on
domestic working. Several factors were attributed to this particular phenomenon. In Dar es
Salaam, domestic child labor is considered an activity when woman and girls are largest
involved. However boys involved in the domestic work mainly do yard work such as
maintaining flower gardens.
The respondents explained that, they were working between 14 up to 17 hours per day. They
woke up at 5.00 am and went to bed at 12.00 am, when all the people at the house had already
gone to sleep. They were the last ones to go to bed and they were the first ones to wake up in the
morning ready to work. When I was interviewing all my respondents, they said that they woke
up early in the morning and went to bed late after finishing all the work at night.

Gender and age distribution of domestic child laborers in the study.
AGE FEMALE MALE TOTAL
10-13 4 1 5
14-17 6 4 10
TOTAL 10 5 15
Home origins of domestic child laborers in the study.
Iringa Morogoro Dodoma Mbeya Total
Girls 5 3 1 1 10
Boys 1 0 3 1 5
Total 6 3 4 2 15
Works performed by domestic child laborers in the study.
Girls House
cleaning
Mending
clothes
Baby
sitting
Buying
glossaries
Cooking Washing
dishes
Boys Cleaning
house
Mending
clothes
Helping in
small
business
Buying
glossaries
Cooking Gardening Washing
dishes
Dar es Salaam is the largest city in Tanzania. Many children come from neighboring
region to work and earn money so that they may help their families back home. According to the
children whom I interviewed, most of them come from Iringa, Mbeya, Morogoro and Dodoma. It
is important to clarify that in Dar es Salaam, the majority of child laborers moved from their
rural homes and migrated to Dar es salaam.

My interviews with two of the domestic laborers, which took place at different times in
their places of work, found that these children are come from work as a result of divorced
families. Because most children ended up being raised by their mothers who could not provide
them, they ended up looking for jobs in the city.
Factors that contribute to the breakup of families and the loss of household support
include the stress of unemployment, the absence of one parent for extend period of time, while
family illness or death which leads to abandonment. Many children spoke of the fragility of
household living arrangements and security. As one 13-year old orphan girl in Dar es Salaam
reported, “I stay with my sister, who has a baby. We live with another sister who is now
pregnant, and she treats me badly and sometimes does not want to buy food.” It is evident that
many orphans are abused and abandoned and often, finds it difficult to cope with members of the
extended family.
Children and education
Many of the children interviewed spoke of high expectations about life when they were born.
They hoped to finish their school and achieve their dreams. The main goal of interviewing these
children was to understand their lives from their own perspectives. When I was interviewing
some of the children, I found that some of them dropped out of school due to poverty. Among
ten girls I interviewed, eight dropped out of school very early. All five boys I interviewed
dropped out of school within the first three years.
Among children who were interviewed, 70% dropped out of school for a number of
reasons such as migration, pregnancy, lack of school fees, lack of basic needs, distance from
school to home, lack of support from family members and other school facilities. This clearly
shows that the family environment greatly impacts the ability of children to stay in school and
get education. With all hopes of education thwarted children are left with very few options for
their survival. Consequently most of them end up in child labor.
When I was interviewing Nyabuluma, a domestic worker who was 13 years old,
she said,
Working instead of going to school…… it was horrible. I barely know
what kind of the person I am going to be…. Just working….. working……
no rest, no fun… just stress. stress …..stress. It comes to the point, where I
thought of killing myself, because I could not take it anymore. My boss just
wants me to work. She doesn’t care if you are sick. If you are not eating, if
you are crying, they say nothing. What they want me as to work. Bosses
should treat us like human beings, not like animals. Some of them treat us
like pets, animals. And sometimes they even don’t pay.
Lack of school materials
When I was interviewing Janeth, Upendo, Monica and Hollo, they told me that the reasons why
they dropped out of school and came in Dar es Salaam to work, were lack of school supplies
such as uniforms and stationaries such as book, pens and exercise books. One of these children
told me that:

I was not comfortable to go to school without shoes. Our school was far from the
place where I was living, I have to walk about one hour going and one hour
coming back. Also I was sitting on the floor, because my parents could not afford
to pay for my desk. That’s why I decided to quit school and come here to work.
Mr. Mkama from the office of ministry of health and social welfare said that, many relatives
refused to take responsibility for orphans because they don’t want more responsibilities.
Grandparents are the ones who take care of the grandchildren. Most of them are too old to
support the family. These people are poor and unable to support the children. As a result orphans
find themselves looking for work to do to support the family. Also, he insisted that the
Government cannot afford to support all orphans in the country. What they did is that they
organized statewide campaigns so that the communities may be aware and help the members to
address the issues of orphan.
Children and work
Children work for a variety of reasons. Poverty and the pressure placed upon them to
escape from difficulty are among the major reasons. Though children are not well paid, they still
serve as major contributors to family income in developing countries (Hindman, 2009). Children
are forced to work because their survival and that of their families depend on them. Child labor
has existed and surrounded by a wall of silence from the society. Nearly three-quarters of
working children are engaged in the worst forms of child labor such as sexual exploitation and
hazardous work. The effective abolition of child labor is one of the greatest challenges at this
time (Ruppel, 2009; Hindman, 2009).
When I was interviewing Ms Kawemana, in the office of the Ministry of Health, Children
and Social Welfare, she said that domestic child labor is the big problem, not only in Dar es
Salaam, but also in other regions, where children have been employed to do domestic work with
low payments. She said that the government had been developing campaigns to educate people
about the problem of child labor in different regions. This campaign encourages people to send
their children to school rather than to work. Also they explain the advantages of education to the
children who will be the leaders of next generation. But all these campaigns have failed due to
lack of funds and poverty within the society.
HIV/AIDS and child labor
The stories of four of my respondents who’s their parents died because of HIV/AIDS
reveal that most of children are working because they are orphaned and their opportunities for
education seriously compromised. The loss of parents forced them to work to survive. In some
instances especially when both parents are affected by a deadly HIV infection children’s are
forced to work and sustain themselves.
Questionnaires from the officials of Ministry of Children, health and home affairs
revealed that girls engaged in prostitution as a way to get income. These children are at risk of
becoming HIV-infected. Children, whose parents become infected and later fall ill and die, are
affected in multiple ways. The effects of HIV/AIDS are negatively impacting the counting
development achievements and initiatives. In 2001, an estimated 11 million children in sub-
Saharan Africa had been orphaned due to the loss of one or both parents which is a threefold

increase since 1995 (Rau 2002).This figure is expected to continue to grow in the next two
decades. Educational opportunities are compromised as children are withdrawn from school to
assist the family by entering the world of work to supplement family income. The work done by
children is often poorly paid, physically and emotionally difficult, and hazardous to their health
and futures. In the era of AIDS sexual harassment, exploitation and the risk of HIV infection
becomes a frightening hazard to many children, particular girls.
Zainabu, was among the childrens whom I interviewed. She had this to say, about her situation:
My parents die {d} when I was {in} standard two. Since that time, I quit the school and come
here, in Dar es Salaam to work. I have been working for five years now, sending money back
home to help my grandmother.
Since many children have lost both parents as a result of devastating impact of HIV/AIDS, there
is a rapid increase in the number of neglected children who eventually run away from their
homes in search of work in order to survive. In the United Republic of Tanzania, this number has
been estimated to be one million in terms of HIV/AIDS orphans.
Lack of support from family members:
Some of the children I interviewed started working during the parent’s sickness. The
duration of illness took between one and fifteen years from infection to death. This study also
found that the majority of child labor occurs due to the parent’s untimely death: “My parents did
it themselves. They told me to concentrate with school work but after their death there was
nobody to help or even support us therefore I had start to doing it personally” (a respondent from
Dar es Salaam).
Another responded that:
During my mother’s sickness relatives used to come and visit us and
sometime help us. Soon after she died no body behind us, I found myself
responsible as a leader for my siblings” (a respondent from Dar es Salaam).
Therefore I left the village and my siblings with my grandparents and
grandmother and come here to work, so that I can support them. I send the
money every month, to help them buying food and small things.
It is evident that children work because they realized that there is nobody to care for
them. Probably the most commonly identified concern is that of child-headed households. These
types of households portray a sense of obligation and responsibility towards siblings illustrating
concern and preoccupation with sibling survival needs in the absence of parents or adults. Child
headed households are obliged to meet the basic needs of their family, such as food, clothing,
school fees as well as sibling education and medical services.
Kisa, one of the children whom I interviewed explain to me that:
You know because I am the oldest at home at the moment, when my younger
siblings don’t have food to eat or uniform for school, I have to think of
something. That’s why I decided to come here to work and help back home.
You know if my mother were still alive I would not have to worry or be
responsible for these things because I would be looking at her to provide for
us. It is those kinds of things that make my life very difficult.

Payment and Compensation
Based on the interviews of the domestic child laborers, I found they are paid 20,000
Tanzanian shillings, which is equal to $12 per month. Their employers argue that because they
provide food and shelter for the children, they do not have to pay high salaries. Since they are
young, unskilled and limited in education, it’s common for them to fall victim to cheap labor.
The other ten children whom I interviewed told me that they receive 25,000 Tanzanian shillings
per month, which is equal to $15. In addition, the employer also told me that they don’t hire the
adults because it’s too expensive for them; they have to pay large amounts of money compared
hiring children.
This study has shown that children receive very little compensation for their work. The
amount of money they earn is not enough for them to support their families and their siblings and
will not remove them from poverty.
The aim of employers are to own these child domestic workers as property, which means
they can do whatever they like and assign whatever tasks. They prefer domestic children who are
new to the city, who don’t know anything, so that they can pay less. Others are illiterate and are
easy to manipulate and control. These children have no voices and choose rather than to follow
what their masters want them to do.
Domestic child workers who live with their employers are particularly vulnerable to
sexual harassment and sexual violence in the workplace. Violence and sexual abuse are among
the most serious and frightening hazards facing children at work. It is of course almost inevitable
that child domestic workers growing in such an environment will be permanently damaged, both
psychologically and emotionally.
My interview with Amina, who is 14 years old and is working as a domestic worker, told
me this:
One day my boss’s husband assaulted me. It was a real struggle. I didn’t say
anything to the wife. I just kept quiet. I didn’t go anywhere because he told me
he will kill me, if I talked about this issue. After one week, my boss was on her
leave, so I asked her if I could go home for one week, and then I will be back.
She gave me the permission, but I didn’t go back. This was my bad experience
in my life.
This area presented data, described and discussed the results pertinent to the problem of
child labor experiences in Dar es Salaam. Working on the issues of domestic child laborers can
focus on personal stories from the children themselves, rather than looking outside the content.
Domestic child labor is associated with lower family incomes, which leads to low educational
attainment. However, there are other factors that lead these children to work, such as the long
distance from home to school. Most of domestic child laborers come from rural areas where
availability of transportation is a major problem.

Conclusions
Domestic child labor is a serious problem not only in Dar es salaam, Tanzania, but all
over the world. In this study, girls were found to be engaged much in domestic workers
compared to boys. Girls are engaged mostly in babysitting, washing, cooking and cleaning the
house while boys are engaged in yard working and gardening.
The research aimed at looking at the effects of domestic child labourers and the impacts
of the society. Large numbers of children who are working as domestic child laborers outside
their homes have been harmed by either the employers or members of the family for whom they
are working.
The major cause of child labor is low income of the parents and the people who care for
these children. Other reasons included family size, and a lack of recognition of the importance of
education. In African culture and perhaps in many other countries, a child is helpless. It is the
parents’ responsibility to raise good citizens. Thus, by empowering the parents, we may solve the
problem of child labor. Moreover, there is the need to educate the parents on the importance of
schooling, so that they put more concern and emphasis on the academic performance of their
children.
Tanzania claims to have free primary education, but in reality it is not free. Parents are
supposed to contribute to examination fees and to buy stationaries, such as exercise books, text
books, pencils, pens, uniforms, desks and chairs. The families who are poor and have financial
problems cannot afford this, which leads children to drop out of schools and engage in working
activities. Therefore, the government should provide total free education without any
contribution so that every child is able to attend school.
Recommendations
In order to have successful programs for the elimination of child labor, the Tanzanian
government and NGOs should look at where domestic child labors originates. Many campaigns
on the elimination of child laborers have been conducted in urban instead of the rural areas
where most of the children live. Therefore the government and NGO’s should increase the
campaigns in rural rather than urban areas. These campaigns are more likely to be successful
with active participation from the community. Also providing quality social service in the
society, such as free education and health care, will be another step to abolish domestic workers.
Programs directed specifically at improving their lives are urgently needed to protect
these children who are working. I would like to see a world in which there are no forms of child
domestic workers. My concern is that the disadvantaged children are losing invaluable
opportunities to improve their lives due to poverty which forces them to do any type of work to
survive.
The society should aim at providing better opportunities for children rather than
encouraging them to work. Education should be totally free without any other contributions, and
the government should pay all expenses which are supposed to be paid by the children. In
addition the society should be aware of the problems that child domestic workers face and help
them to abolish the practice.

Women are the ones who spend much time with children. Women have the ability to
improve the quality of social life for children’s lives (March and Taqqu, 1986). Education for
women in rural areas will lead the women to support their families and help abolish domestic
child laborers. In addition, micro financing should be introduced to help women and families
who are living in rural areas from where domestic child labor is coming. Knowledge on how to
run their small businesses so that they can support their families will improve financial status and
assist in supporting children who are in need.
Another major recommendation is that, the government must take seriously the issues of
HIV/AIDS. Many children in the study were orphan whose parents have died of HIV/AIDS.
While African society expects the extended families to take care of the orphans in their families,
the study clearly shows that this is not the case. With added burden of taking care of many
orphaned children, many members of extended families are overwhelmed by lack of resources. I
n such instances, a program that identifies these orphaned children and offers a financial
subsidy to the families might greatly improve the living conditions of the children and reduce the
propensity for child labor.
The government should organize and open the orphanage centers, where those children
who have no parents, may have a place to stay, and get free education. Also the government
should supervise the NGOs who help these children and make sure that the services provided are
good.
For future research, I recommend researchers to investigate on the perception of society
towards marginalized groups, particularly women and children. Specifically, more research that
address the plight of child labor is needed to raise the awareness of this problem in Tanzania.

References
Bagley, C. Mallick, K. (2000). Prediction of sexual emotional and physical maltreatment and
mental health outcomes in a longitudinal cohort of adolescent woman child maltreatment
5(3) 218-226
Beguele, A. & Boyen, J. (eds) (1988). Combating Child Labor. Geneva international Labor
Organization.
Bloom, L.R. (1998). Under the sign of hope: Feminist methodology and narratives interpretation.
Albany University of the New York
Bhukuth, A. (2008). "Defining child labor: a controversial debate" Development in Practice 18,
Binnett, J. ( 2003). Evaluation methods in research. London Continuum
385–394) http://www.nosmut.com/Child_labour.html.
Child Soldiers Global Report (2004). United Republic of Tanzania. Covers the period from April
2001 to March 2004.
(1979). Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. William
& Mary journal of women and the law [Vol. 3:29
Carol, D. (1999). Human Rights: Essential reference. Phoenix: The Oryx Press.
Dachi, H.A.& Garrett (2003). Child labor and its impact on Children’s. Access to participation in
primary Education. A case study from Tanzania. London.
Edmonds, E. (2007). "Child Labor," in T.P. Schultz and J. Strauss, eds., Handbook of
Development Economics, (Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, North-Holland) 3607-371.
Kamala, E., Lusinde, E., Millinga, J., Mwaitula, J., Gonza, M.J ., Juma M.G, & Khamis, H.A.
(2001, November). Tanzania Children in Prostitution: A Rapid Assessment, ILO-IPEC,
Geneva, 23.
(2005). International Programme on elimination of child labor ILO, Geneva.
Fuller R, G. (1974). Child labor and the constitution, Arno press- New York Times Company.
Giuseppe, N. & Luca, N. (2008). Child Labor in a globalized world: A legal analysis of ILO
Action. Ashgate Publication Limited.
Glind, H. (2010). Migration and child labor, Exploring child migrant vulnerabilities and those of
children left behind. Working paper September 2010: International Programme on the
Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC) Retrieved January, 2011, from
http://www.childmigration.net/H_van_de_Glind
Harding, S. (eds) (1987). "Is there a feminist method? In feminism and methodology.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Hindman, H. (2009). The world of child labor,: An historical regional survey. USA Shape Inc.,
Human Right Watch (2010). World report. United States of America.
International Labor Organization (ILO) (2009). A Programme in East and Central Africa by the
International labor office International Programme on the Elimination of Child labor (IPEC).
International Labor Organization (2010). Accelerating action against child labor, International
labor office-Geneva.
International Labor Organization (2010). A Programme in East and Central Africa by the
International labor office (ILO). International Programme on the Elimination of Child labor
(IPEC).http://www.experiment-resources.com/simple-random-sampling.htm
Kadonya, C., Madihi, M. & Mtwana, S. (2002). Tanzania Child Labor in the Informal Sector:
A Rapid Assessment. Investigating the Worst Forms of Child Labor International Labor
Organization International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labor.

Kihwelo, P (2006). Harmonization of laws relating to children Tanzania, African child policy
forum. (Unpublished).
Law reform commission (2001). United Republic of Tanzania, report on the labor law, ministry
of justice and constitutional affairs. Dar es salaam, Tanzania.
Levesque R.J.R. (1995). Geraldine Van Bueren, The Internationa. Law on the Rights of the
children. Volume 19, Issue 2 1995 Article 28.
Lieten, G.K, (2000). Children work and education. General parameters, economic and political
weekly, June 10,203702043.
March, K., & Taqqu, R.(ed) (1986).Women’s informal associations in developing countries:
Catalysts or change? University Press.
Makhoul. J, (2004). Violence: the silent determinant of child labor. Journal of children of
poverty 10 (2) 131-147.
Mwangi, M. (2009). We Will Have Gained Ourselves, Narrative experiences of African women
pursuing higher education in the United States of America. North Star Press, Saint Cloud,
Minnesota.
National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (2005) Vice presidents Office, June
Dakore, O.O. (2000). “Child Domestic Labour in Lusaka: A Gender Perspective, The Case of
Kamwala, Kabwata, Libala, Chilenje, Woodlands Extension, Nyumba-Yanga”, Department
of Gender Studies, University of Zambia,
Rajani, R.( 2000). “Child Rights in Tanzania: A Political Perspective” in Child Rights Monitor,
Amsterdam, Kluwer Publishers.
Rau, B. (2003). Combating Child labor and HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa: ILO International
Programme on the Elimination of Child labor Paper 1 Geneva.
Rau, B. (2002). Intersecting Risks: HIV/AIDS and Child Labor, ILO Geneva.
Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences. CA, USA: SAGE
Publications,
Reinharz, S. (1992). Feminist methods in social research. New York: Oxford University Press
Ruppel,O. C(.ed) (2009). Children’s Rights in Namibia. Macmillan Education
Namibia.http://www.kas.de/upload/auslandshomepages/namibia/Children_Rights/Children.
Trafficking in Persons Report- 2004: Tanzania, Washington, D.C., June 2004; available from
http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2004/33189.htm.
UN Millennium development goal Reports.2005. www.un.org/milleniumgoal/index.asp
United States Department of State (2007) Retrieved March 2009 from:
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/102128.htm
U.S. Department of State, Country Reports- 2003: Tanzania.
UNICEF (2011) humanitarian action for children. Building resilience. Division Communication
Publications, NewYork.
Website on ILAB - Advancing the Campaign against Child Labor Retrieved from:
<http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/media/reports/iclp/Advancing1/html/Advance%20Camp_II.ht
Wiener G. (2009) Child Labor (Global Viewpoints) Green haven Publications
Website on Ipp media ‘Predicament of Fighting Child labor. Retrieved from:
<http//www.ippmedia.com/ipp/guardian.html >
Weston, B.H. (ed) (2005) Child Labor and Human Rights: Making Children Matter. Boulder:
Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Causes and Effects of Domestic Child Labor in Tanzania

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Causes and Effects of Domestic Child Labor in Tanzania

Similar to Causes and Effects of Domestic Child Labor in Tanzania (8)

More from Sarah Morrow

More from Sarah Morrow (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Causes and Effects of Domestic Child Labor in Tanzania