The contribution of muslims in the field of social sciences....ppt
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Part one contains: the attitude of Islam towards Science and technology. Part two contains contribution of Muslims in Social Sciences Part three contains the contribution of Muslims in the field of Natural Sciences
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The contribution of muslims in the field of social sciences....ppt
- 1. Sami-ud-Din Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities
- 3. ِه ِادَبِعِل َجَر ْ خ َ أ ي ِت َّ ال ِ َّاَّلل َ ة َ ينِز َمَّر َح ْن َم ْل ُ قِل َي ِه ْل ُ ق ِق ْ زِالر َنِم ِاتَبِي َّ الطَوَين ِذ َّ ل ِة َامَيِق ْ ال َمْوَي ً ةَصِال َ خاَي ْ ن ُّالد ِاةَي َح ْ اليِف وا ُ ن َآمٍمْو َ قِل ِاتَي ْ اْل ُل ِص َ ف ُ ن َكِل َ ذ َ ك َ نو ُم َ لْعَي(32) "Say (O Muhammad): Who hath forbidden the adornment (beautiful gifts) of God which He hath brought forth for His bondsmen and the good things of His providing?"
- 4. َ ن َس َحاَي ْ ن ُّالديِفا َ نِتآا َ نَّبَر ُلو ُ قَي ْن َم ْمُهْنِمَوَاب َ ذَعا َ نِقَو ً ة َ ن َس َح ِةَر ِخ ْ اْليِف َو ً ةِار َّ الن (201)ِر َس ُ َّاَّللَوواُب َس َ كا َّمِم ٌيب ِص َ ن ْمُه َ ل َكِئ َ ول ُ أِاب َس ِح ْ ال ُُعي(202) Our Lord! Give unto us in this world that which is best and in the Hereafter that which is best, and guard us from the torment of Fire." (2:201) To these will be allotted what they have earned; and Allah is quick in account. (2:202)
- 5. َ ت َ َلَو َ ةَر ِخ ْ اْل َار َّالد ُ َّاَّلل َاك َ آتا َيمِف ِغ َ تْابَوَواَي ْ ن ُّالد َنِم َكَيب ِص َ ن َس ْ نا َم َ ك ْن ِس ْح َ أ يِف َاد َس َ ف ْ ال ِغْب َ ت َ َلَو َكْي َ لِإ ُ َّاَّلل َن َس ْح َ أ ُ ْ ال ُّب ِحُي َ َل َ َّاَّلل َّنِإ ِضْر َ ْ اْلَين ِد ِس ْ ف(77) "But seek, with the (wealth) which Allah has bestowed on thee, the Home of the Hereafter, nor forget thy portion in this world: but do thou good, as Allah has been good to thee, and seek not (occasions for) mischief in the land: for Allah loves not those who do mischief.“ (28:77) It is this quest for well-being which attracts man to study and to learn, in as perfect a manner as possible, all that exists in the universe so as to profit by it and to be grateful to God for it.
- 6. ُ ك َ لا َ ن ْ لَع َجَو ِضْر َ ْ اْليِف ْم ُ اك َّ ن َّ ك َم ْد َ ق َ لَو ُ ك ْ ش َ تا َم ً يًلِل َ ق َشِايَع َماَيهِف ْم َ نوُر(10) It is We Who have placed you with authority on earth, and provided you therein with means for the fulfillment of your life: small are the thanks that ye give! َ ل ْم ُ ت ْس َ ل ْنَمَو َشِايَع َماَيهِف ْم ُ ك َ لا َ ن ْ لَع َجَو َ ننِقِزاَرِب ُه(20) َّ َلِإ ٍءْي َ ش ْنِم ْ نِإَو َم ٍر َ د َ قِب َّ َلِإ ُه ُ لِز َ ن ُ نا َمَو ُه ُ نِئاَز َ خا َ ن َ د ْ نِعٍوم ُ لْع(21) And We have provided therein means of subsistence,- for you and for those for whose sustenance ye are not responsible. And there is not a thing but its (sources and) treasures (inexhaustible) are with Us; but We only send down thereof in due and ascertainable measures. (15:20-21)
- 7. ُ ثاًيعِم َج ِضْر َ ْ اْليِفا َم ْم ُ ك َ ل َق َ ل َ خي ِذ َّ ال َو ُهَس َ ف ِاء َم َّالسى َ لِإ ىَو َ ت ْاس َّمَّن ُاهَّو ٌيمِلَع ٍءْي َ ش ِل ُ كِب َو ُهَو ٍاتَاو َم َس َُْب َس(29) It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on earth; Moreover His design comprehended the heavens, for He gave order and perfection to the seven firmaments; and of all things He hath perfect knowledge. (2:29) :لآلخرةخلقتموانتم لكمخلقتالدنيا ان Dunya(thisworld)hasbeen created foryouandyouhavebeen created forthe Aakhirah (hereafter)"
- 8. True believers meditate over the creation of Universe and acknowledge as: َ لَعَواًودُع ُ قَوا ًامَيِق َ َّاَّلل َ نوُر ُ ك ْ ذَي َين ِذ َّ الِف َ نوُر َّ ك َ ف َ تَيَو ْمِهِوب ُ ن ُجىِق ْ ل َ خي َبا َ ذ َه َ ت ْ ق َ ل َ خا َما َ نَّبَر ِضْر َ ْ اْلَو ِاتَاو َم َّالسَاب َ ذَع ا َ نِق َ ف َك َ ان َحْب ُس ً ًل ِاطِار َّ الن (3:191) Men who celebrate the praises of Allah, standing, sitting, and lying down on their sides, and contemplate the (wonders of) creation in the heavens and the earth, (With the thought): "Our Lord! not for naught Hast Thou created (all) this! Glory to Thee! Give us salvation from the penalty of the Fire.
- 9. The Prophet Muhammad (s.w.a) had always used to pray: ھیکمااالشیاءحقائقناراالھم O! my Lord show me the realities of things as they are. What beautiful prayer is the one which the Quran teaches man: ا ًم ْ لِعيِنْدِز ِبَر ْل ُ قَو(20:114) …and say my Lord! Increase me in knowledge
- 10. ُم َ لْع َ ت َ َل ْم ُ ت ْ ن ُ ك ْ نِإ ِر ْ ك ِالذ َل ْه َ أوا ُ ل َ أ ْاس َ ف َ نو(16:43) “And ask the people of remembrance if ye know not” Asking good questions is appreciated by the Prophet (s.a.w)as: (مرفوع حديث)ا َ نَرَب ْ خ َ أ َ خ ْ ال َيم ِاهَرْبِإ ُنْب ِ َّاَّلل ُ ةَب ِهُّيِنَلْوثنا،أنبا ،ُدْبَع ُّي ِد ْ ن َ قْر َم َّالس َ د َم ْح َ أ ُنْب ِارَّب َج ْ الثنا ،ٍيمِم َ ت ُنْب ُسِي َ خ ُمثنا ،ُنْب ُص ْ ف َح َر َمُعْنَع،ٍُِفا َ نِنَع،َر َمُع ِنْابَال َ ق ،:َص ِ َّاَّلل ُلو ُسَر َال َ قْي َ لَع ُ َّاَّلل ى َّ لِه َم َّ ل َسَو: "ْيَع ْ ال ُ فْصِن ِة َ ق َ ف َّ الن يِف ُادَصِت ْ اَلق َّ الن ى َ لِإ ُدُّدَو َّ التَو ، ِشِاس ْ ال ُ فْصِن ِال َ ؤ ُّالس ُن َس َحَو ، ِل ْ قَع ْ ال ُ فْصِنِم ْ لِع" . The Messenger of Allah Said moderation in consumption is a key to successful life and loving people is triumph of wisdom and asking good question is the exact way of knowledge.
- 11. َق َ ل َ خي ِذ َّ ال َكِبَر ِم ْاسِب ْ أَر ْ اق(1)ٍق َ لَع ْنِم َ ان َس ْ نِ ْ اْل َق َ ل َ خ(2)َكُّب َرَو ْ أَر ْ اق ُمَر ْ ك َ ْ اْل(3)ِم َ ل َ ق ْ الِب َم َّ لَعي ِذ َّ ال(4)ْم َ لْعَي ْم َ لا َم َ ان َس ْ نِ ْ اْل َم َّ لَع(96:1) 1. Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- 2. Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: 3. Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- 4. He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- 5. Taught man that which he knew not.
- 12. ا َ أ َ دَب َ فْي َ كاوُر ُ ظ ْ ان َ ف ِضْر َ ْ اْليِفوا ُنر ِس ْل ُ قال ُئ ِش ْ نُي ُ َّاَّلل َّم ُ ث َق ْ ل َ خ ْ ل َ ةَر ِخ ْ اْل َ ة َ أ ْ ش َّ ن ٌير ِد َ ق ٍءْي َ ش ِل ُ كى َ لَع َ َّاَّلل َّنِإ(29:20) Say: "Travel through the earth and see how Allah did originate creation; so will Allah produce a later creation: for Allah has power over all things.
- 13. A firm belief requires from Muslims to get expertise in theological sciences. While the other pillars require Mundane Sciences like Zakat requires knowledge of finance and financial management that is why the knowledge of inheritance is called half of the knowledge. "مينزعمالوأوى ينسوهوالعلمنصفوهووعلموهائضرالفتعلمواأمتين" “Seek the knowledge of inheritance and teach it because it is half of the whole knowledge and Muslims will first forget it and this knowledge will be snatched first as a symbol of the Doomsday”
- 14. The Hajj requires from Muslims to get the knowledge of geography and astronomy and similarly the Islamic fasting demands for the in- depth knowledge in natural phenomena of setting sun and appearing of dawn and understanding the time and space. The study of the Quran requires the knowledge of language in which it is revealed that is the knowledge of linguistics. similarly Tajweed requires the understanding of phonology and phonetics.
- 15. The Quran demands from Muslims to change their standards of life. If they stand for it then God will help them. ِن َ غُيىَّت َح ٍمْو َ قِبا َم ُرِن َ غُي َ َل َ َّاَّلل َّنِإْمِه ِس ُ ف ْ ن َ أِبا َموا ُر(13:11) surely Allah does not change the condition of a people until they change their own condition; Due to these repeated push fors, in the earlier 2nd century of Hijra there begin to establish factories for the manufacturing of paper all over the vast Muslim empire to publish and promote knowledge.
- 16. The earlier Muslims have contributed in the branches of social sciences which were particularly more important and beneficial for mankind. The reason was to give more and more benefit to mankind in the light of cardinal principle: الناسينفعمنالناسرخي
- 19. The perusal and understanding of the Divine Message of God (the Quran and Sunnah) has necessitated the study of the linguistic, grammatical, historical, and even the speculative sciences, along with many others - which gradually developed into independent sciences of general utility.
- 20. The need to preserve the message of Allah the Quran and Sunnah, the earlier Muslims have introduced different beautiful scriptures of the Quran and Sunnah.
- 21. The universality of the Islamic teachings shows that how carefully the earlier Muslims have translated and transliterated the Message of God into different languages of the world. The first translation took place in very time of the Prophet (s.a.w) by Hazrat Salman Farsi (r.a) into Persian.
- 22. The great interaction with the Quran of the earlier Muslims enabled them to introduce beautiful Arabic fonts of Calligraphy and Lithography.
- 25. The Muslims introduced a new field of social sciences under the title of Elm al- Tafseer (علم )التفسيرor the science of the interpretation of the Quran. They have laid down principles and rules for the interpretation of the Quran. This is also known as Uloom al- Quran. The Muslims were more curious to find out the will of God that carry each and every verse of the Quran. Due to this zeal Hazrat Abu Huraira said I know about each verse of the Quran where it was revealed and who was the addressee of the that verse.
- 26. Muslims have developed the science of narration and have preserved the sayings (both public and private) of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) by a process of first hand knowledge. They have insisted on the authenticity in all transmissions. This science of narration is called ایوالرعلمه
- 27. How to make analysis of the text of a Hadith of the Prophet (s.a.w) and to draw inferences from the text of a particular Hadith, the Muhadditheen ()محدیثينhave introduced some rules and principles in this connection. Every Muslim Muhaddith ()محدثis bound to follow those rules and principles.
- 28. Writing biography is not the invention of Muslims but Muslims have made the writing of biography of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) unique from the conventional style of writing biographies. They have persisted on the authenticity of the information provided in their biographies through the science of narration. This is due the saying of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) َع َّاَّللى َّ لَص ِي ِب َّ الن ِنَع َ ةَرْيَر ُهيِب َ أ ْنَعَال َ ق َم َّ ل َسَو ِهْي َ ل:َع َب َ ذ َ ك ْن َما ًدِمَع َ ت ُم َّي َ ل ِار َّ الن َنِم ُه َ دَع ْ ق َم ْ أَّوَب َ تَي ْ ل َ ف [أحمد،ماجةابن،دوداوأبي،الترمذي،يالبخار،مسلم] He who deliberately forges a lie against me let him have his abode in the Hell
- 29. One could relate all that is known of the lives of Noah, Moses, Jesus, Buddha and other great men of antiquity, in a few pages only, but the known details of the biography of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) fills hundreds of pages, so great was the care that was taken to preserve for posterity documented and precise data. Muslims have insisted on the first hand knowledge while compiling the Seerah of the prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). They develop the simple style of writing biographies into a Science of writing Biography of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) with all care and zest. Writing the biography of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) will continue till the doomsday because Muslims consider it an act of reward.
- 30. Although the Science of Dogmatico-scholastico is the invention of Greeks and Indians but Muslims scientists contributed to it a lot. The speculative aspect of the Faith, particularly in the matter of beliefs and dogmas, shows that the discussions which began in the lifetime of the Prophet, became later the root cause of different sciences, such as the Kalam (dogmatico-scholastic), and tasawwuf (mystico-spiritualistic).
- 31. The religious polemics with non-Muslims, and even among Muslims themselves, introduced foreign elements from Greek and Indian philosophy, etc. Later on, Muslims did not lack their own great philosophers endowed with originality and erudition, like al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn-Sina (Avicenna), Ibn-Rushd (Averroes), imam Ghazali, Imam Abu Hanifa and Ibn Arabi. The Quran urges Muslims in these words: ٍاءَو َس ٍة َمِل َ ك ى َ لِإ اْو َ الَع َ ت ِاب َ ت ِك ْ ال َل ْه َ أاَي ْل ُ ق َ دُبْع َ ن َّ َل َ أ ْم ُ ك َ نْيَبَوا َ ن َ نْيَب َ كِر ْ ش ُ ن َ َلَو َ َّاَّلل َّ َلِإ ًابَبْر َ أ اًضْعَب ا َ نُضْعَب َ ذ ِخ َّ تَي َ َلَوا ً ئْي َ ش ِهِب ُ ق َ ف اْو َّ لَو َ ت ْ نِإ َ ف ِ َّاَّلل ِنوُد ْنِم اا َّ ن َ أِب وا ُدَه ْ اشوا ُ ول َ نو ُمِل ْس ُم(3:64) Say: "O People of the Book! come to common terms as between us and you: That we worship none but Allah. that we associate no partners with him; that we erect not, from among ourselves, Lords and patrons other than Allah." If then they turn back, say ye: "Bear witness that we (at least) are Muslims (bowing to Allah.s Will).
- 32. Arabic language a Bedouin language which was limited to few regions was made international language due the earlier Muslims inventions in the fields of natural and social sciences. Muslims have introduced new scientific terminologies and have introduced the science of etymology of words. All kinds of inventions were published in Arabic language.
- 33. The Muslim designs of Masajids and Madrassah/schools, community centers are unique for cross ventilation and light. Muslims have introduced fountains in the lawns of their Masajids and other community centers. The Taj Mehal is one of the 7 best architectures of the world. Muslims have introduce strategic forts for their armies. In the era of Hazrat Umar the 2nd Caliph Muslim designers and architectures have designed new city maps in the newly conquered areas.
- 34. In the era of the Hazrat Umar (R.A) Bazars and shopping centers were allocated and their boundaries were also defined.
- 35. When the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) migrated to the City of Madinah al- Munnawarah he established Masjid-e-Quba and Masjid-e-Nabvi as a community centers. In those community center the Prophet (s.a.w) had used to plan for the important and other public matters like War strategies, distribution of amwaal-e-Ghanaim (spoils). All the matters of public interest were discussed and planned in these Masajids.
- 36. From the first day of the establishment of Islamic State in Madinah, the Prophet Muhammad
- 37. The second caliph Hazrat Umar (r.a) had established a public record of all the Muslims and had fixed scholarships for each and every citizen of the Islamic state. The amount of scholarship issued was per the column or order of the citizens maintained in the record called Dewan (.)دیوان The record was maintained on the criterion: Al- ssabiqoon al awwaleen (االولون )السابقون Asshab-e-Badr (بدر )اصحاب Al- Muta’khireen ()المتاخیرون or commoners ْب ِدَّمَحُم َْنع ِيح ِحَّصال يِف ٌمِلْسُم ُهاَوَريِعِفَّاشال َلاَق ٍعِفاَر ِن:َقُلوُسَر ىَض ِقاَعْلا ىَلَع َمَّلَسَو ِهْيَلَع ُهللا ىَّلَص ِهللاِالد ََانك ىَّتَح ،َانَِيود ََلَو ِةَلَين ِح ُانَيو ْنَع ُهللا َي ِضَر َرَمُع ِانَمَز يِف ُلاَمْلا َرُثَكُه
- 38. In the era of Hazrat Umar, he was keeping the record of the assets of his governors and other collectors that to keep an vigilant eye on the affairs of state’s men. Before appointing any state’s man he used to keep his record and after his retirement the Caliph matched it with the previous record.
- 39. It was becoming necessary to finance the poor people of the Islamic State, the second caliph Hazrat Umar (r.a) established the treasury or the system of Bait ul Maal. عمر عن-عنه هللا رضي-المال بيت من سرق فيمن:قطع َل حق فيه وله إَل أحد من ما ،عليه.
- 40. The Muslims were the first to accord it a place in the legal system, creating both rights and obligations. This may be observed in the rules of international law that formed part of a special chapter in the codes and treatises of the Muslim law ever since the earliest times. It became an independent science in the name of Siyar even in middle of 2nd century of Hijrah. The International law introduced by Musllims makes no discrimination among foreigners. It does not concern inter-Muslim relations, but deals solely with the non-Muslim States of the entire world. Islam in principle forms one single unit and one single organic community.
- 41. Muslims have introduced equality in the society and the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) has announced: من كلكمو آدمتراب من آدم Arabs have no preference over non Arabs and vice versa: ا أیام وسط في بمنى وسلم علیه هللا صلى هللا رسول خطبةلتشریق أباكم وإن أال واحد ربكم إن أال الناس أیها فقال بعیر على وهو أ على ألسود فضل ال أال عجمي على لعربي فضل ال أال واحدحمر الغائ الشاهد لیبلغ قال نعم قالوا بلغت قد أال بالتقوى إالب.
- 42. Before Islam the ancient Greeks had their own codified law whether less or more but the Muslims have developed a science which should treat the philosophy and sources of law, and the method of legislation, interpretation, application, etc., of the law was wanting, and this never struck the minds of the jurists before Islam. Since the second century of the Hijrah (800 C.E.) there began to be produced Islamic works of this kind, called Usul al-Fiqh.
- 43. In order to ease the juristic matters regarding different daily life activities the five Imams recognized by the Muslim Ummah for to be followed have analyzed each juristic issue and have given their expert opinions. These schools of thought were the product of earlier decade of the second Hijrah year. These Imams are known as: Imam Ja’far al- Sadiq, Abu Hanifah Nauman bin Thabit, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Idrees al- Shafi’ and Imam Malik bin Anas. Later on their Jurist work became and independent Science of Jurisprudence. In order to bring into relief the reasons of their differences as well as the effects of each divergence of principle on a given point of law. The books of Dabusi and Ibn Rushd are classics on the subject.
- 44. The written-constitution of the State is also an innovation of the Muslims. In fact, Prophet Muhammad was its author. When he established a City-State at Madinah, he endowed it with a written constitution. Its contents could be divided into 52 clauses. It mentions in precise terms the rights and obligations of the head of the State, of constituent units, and of subjects respectively, in matters of administration, legislation, justice, defense, etc. It dates from the year 622 of the Christian era.
- 45. In the field of law proper, codes have appeared since the beginning of the second century of the Hijrah. They are divided into three principal parts: (i) cult or religious practices, (ii) contractual relations of all kinds, and (iii) penalties. . International law formed part of the penalties, war being placed on the same level as action against marauding brigands, pirates and other violators of law or treaty.
- 46. In the field of history and sociology the work of Muslims is important for two reasons: 1. Authenticity 2. preservation of the most varied details Attestation by witnesses was once an exclusive feature of judicial tribunals. The Muslims applied it to history; one required evidence for each reported narration. Biographical dictionaries are a characteristic feature of Muslim historical literature. The dictionaries were compiled according to professions, towns or regions, centuries or epochs, etc. Ibn Ishaq, at-Tabari, al- Mas'udi, Miskawaih, Saa'id al Andalusi and Ibn Khaldun are the famous historians.
- 47. The dialogue of Abu-Hanifah (d. 767) reported by al-Muwaffaq, (1, 161) is well known: A Mu'tazilite asked him where the center of the earth was, and he replied: "In the very place where thou art sitting!" This reply can be given only if one meant to convey that the earth was spherical. Even the earliest world maps, prepared by Muslims, represent the earth in circular shape. The map of al-Idrisi, prepared for King Roger of Sicily, (1101-54), astonishes us by its great precision and exactitude.
- 48. . Ibn Majid, who served as pilot to Vasco da Gama as far as India, already speaks of the compass as a familiar thing. Thousands of Muslim coins, discovered in the excavations of Scandinavia, Finland, Russia, Kazan, etc., show conclusively the commercial activity of Muslim caravan-leaders during the Middle Ages. Muslim mariners astonished us with their skill and daring in their voyage from Basrah (Iraq) to China. The words arsenal, admiral, cable, monsoon, which are all of Arabic origin, are substantial proof of the Muslim influence on modern Western culture.
- 50. The discovery and study of a number of stars is acknowledged to be a valuable and unforgettable contribution of the Muslims. A very large number of stars are still known in Western languages by their Arabic names, and it is Ibn-Rushd (Averroes) who recognized spots on the surface of the sun. The calendar reform by 'Umar al-Khayyam outdistances by far the Gregorian one. The pre-Islamic Bedouin Arabs had already developed very precise astronomical observations, not only for their nocturnal travel in the desert, but also for meteorology, rain, etc. A number of books called Kitab al-Anwa, gives us sufficient proof of the extent of Arabic knowledge.
- 51. Under the Caliph al-Ma'mun, the circumference of the earth was measured, the exactness of these results was astonishing. Works were compiled very early dealing with the ebb and flow of the tide, dawn, twilight, rainbows, halos, and above all the sun and the moon and their movements, since they are immediately related with the question of the hours of prayer and fasting.
- 52. Words used in Botany are quite characteristic. Except for the names of certain plants which did not grow in the Muslim empire, there is not a single technical term of foreign origin therein; one found words for every term in Arabic. The Kitab an-Nabat, Encyclopaedia Botanica of ad- Dinawari (d. 895) in six thick volumes was compiled even before the first translation into Arabic of the works on the subject in Greek. In the words of Silverberg: After a thousand years of study, Greek botany resumed with the works of Dioscorides and Theophrastus, but the very first Muslim work, of ad-Dinawari, on the subject far surpasses them in erudition and extensiveness.(1) Ad-Dinawari describes not only the exterior of each plant, but also their alimentary, medicinal and other properties. He classified them, spoke of their habitat, among other details.
- 53. In the words of Silverberg: After a thousand years of study, Greek botany resumed with the works of Dioscorides and Theophrastus, but the very first Muslim work, of ad-Dinawari, on the subject far surpasses them in erudition and extensiveness.(1) Ad-Dinawari describes not only the exterior of each plant, but also their alimentary, medicinal and other properties. He classified them, spoke of their habitat, among other details.
- 54. The observation of the life of the wild animals and birds had always fascinated the Bedouins of Arabia. AI-Jahiz (d. 868) has left a huge work for popularizing the subject while referring to evolution, which theme was later developed by Miskawaih, al- Qazwini, ad-Damiri, and others, not to speak of numerous works on falconery and hunting by means of domesticated and trained beasts and birds of prey.
- 55. The works of Razi (Rhazes), Ibn-Sina (Avicenna) Abu'l-Qasim (Abucasis) and others remained until recent times the basis of all medical study even in the West. We know now that the fact of the circulation of blood was also known to them, thanks to the writings of Ibn an-Nafis.
- 56. This science owes a particular debt to the Muslims. We possess the book of rays by al-Kindi (of the 9th century), which was already far in advance of the Greek lore of the incendiary mirrors. Ibn al- Haitham (Alhazen, 965), who followed him, has rightly merited a lasting celebrity. Al-Kindi, al- Farabi, Ibn-Sina, al-Birun and others who were representatives of Muslim science, yield their place to none in the world history of science.
- 57. Allama Ibn Sina had written ninety nine books on the pathology of eye and its treatment. These books are still considered authentic through out the globe.
- 58. For the underwater lore, numerous treatises were written on pearl-fishery and the treatment of their shells.
- 59. Abbas bn- Firnas (d.888) had invented an apparatus, with which he flew a long distance. He died in an accident, and left no successor to pursue and perfect his work. Others invented mechanical instruments for floating sunken ships, or pulling out trees without difficulty that are of an enormous dimension
- 60. the Muslims began very early an ever-progressive and serious study of chemistry and physics. Scientific works are attributed to Khalid ibn Yazid (d. 704) and to the great jurist Ja'far as Sadiq (d. 765); and their pupil Jabir ibn Hayyan (cir. 776) has justly remained celebrated throughout the ages. The characteristic feature of their works has been objective experimentation, instead of simple specualtion; and it was through observation that they accumulated facts.
- 61. Jabir knew the chemical operations of calcination and reduction and he also developed the methods of evaporation, sublimation and crystallization. The existence of Latin translations of the works of Jabir and others (for a long time were used as textbooks in Europe) suffices to show how greatly modern science is indebted to the works of the Muslim savants, and how fast it developed, thanks to the applications of the Arabo-Muslim method of experimentation rather than the Greek method of speculation.
- 62. . Mathematical science had left ineffaceable traces of the Muslim share in its development. The terms algebra, zero, cipher, etc., are of Arabic origin. The names of al-Khwarizmi, 'Umar al- Khayyam, al-Biruni and others shall remain as famous as those of Euclid and the Indian author of Siddhanta, etc. Trigonometry was unknown to the Greeks - the credit for its discovery undoubtedly goes to Muslim mathematicians.