This document discusses several topics related to botany and biology. It provides definitions of key terms like taxonomy, classification, biodiversity, and discusses subfields of botany like applied botany. It also contains passages from the Quran in Arabic. The document touches on classification of living things, characteristics of living things, diversity of life, and discusses both special creation and evolution theories.

1. ‫الرحيم‬ ‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬‫الرحيم‬ ‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬
‫ت‬ُ ‫ب‬ِ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ما‬ّ ‫م‬ِ ‫ها‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ج‬َ ‫وا‬َ ‫ز‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬ ‫ق‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫خ‬َ ‫ذي‬ِ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ا‬ ‫ن‬َ ‫حا‬َ ‫ب‬ْ ‫س‬ُ‫ت‬ُ ‫ب‬ِ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ما‬ّ ‫م‬ِ ‫ها‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ج‬َ ‫وا‬َ ‫ز‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬ ‫ق‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫خ‬َ ‫ذي‬ِ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ا‬ ‫ن‬َ ‫حا‬َ ‫ب‬ْ ‫س‬ُ
﴿ ‫ن‬َ ‫مو‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ع‬ْ ‫ي‬َ ‫ل‬ ‫ما‬ّ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ِ ‫س‬ِ ‫ف‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫ض‬ُ ‫ر‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬﴿ ‫ن‬َ ‫مو‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ع‬ْ ‫ي‬َ ‫ل‬ ‫ما‬ّ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ِ ‫س‬ِ ‫ف‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫ض‬ُ ‫ر‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬
3636)‫يـس‬ّ ‫سورة‬ ﴾)‫يـس‬ّ ‫سورة‬ ﴾ )
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the
Merciful.
Glory be to Him Who created all the sexual
pairs, of that which the earth groweth, and of
themselves, and of that which they know not!

2. Characteristics of living things
Living things are made of cells.
Living things obtain and use energy.
Living things grow and develop.
Living things reproduce.
Living things respond to their environment.
Living things adapt to their environment.
Biology is the study of living things.
Microorganisms, Plants and Animals.
Botany is the scientific study of plants (and many
organisms previously thought to be plants)

3. BotanyBotany
◄ Taxonomy (is the science that finds, describes,
classifies, identifies, and names plants)
◄ Physiology (study of the functions of plant organs)
◄ Morphology (study of plant form)
◄ Anatomy (study of plant structure)
◄ Ecology (interactions with the environment)
There are various subfields or subdisciplines of Botany which
may be pure or applied Botany.
◄ Phytogeography (The study of the geographic
distribution of plants. Also
called geobotany).◄ Genetics (the study of heredity and variation in organisms).
Pure Botany

4. Applied Botany
Study of the relation of plants with man
Agriculture The science, art, and business of cultivating soil,
producing crops, and raising livestock; farming.
Horticulture The science or art of cultivating fruits, vegetables,
flowers, or ornamental plants.
Agronomy Is the science and technology of producing and using
plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber, and reclamation.
Vegetable production any of various herbaceous plants having
parts that are used as food, such as peas, beans, cabbage, potatoes,
cauliflower, and onions

5. Pomology the science of growing, storing, and processing fruit.
Floriculture The cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants.
Plant Breeding The art and science of changing the genetics of
plants for the benefit of mankind.
Forestry The art and science of managing forests, tree plantations,
and related natural resources.
Phytopathology (plant pathology) is the scientific study of plant
diseases

6. Biodiversity
Variation of life at all levels of
biological organization
287,655plants, including:
15,000mosses,
13,025ferns,
980gymnosperms,
199,350dicotyledons,
59,300monocotyledons;
74,000-120,000fungi;
10,000lichens;
50,000Protists
1,250,000animals, including:
1,190,200invertebrates:
950,000insects,
70,000mollusks,
40,000crustaceans,
130,200others;
58,808vertebrates:
29,300fish,
5,743amphibians,
8,240reptiles,
10,234birds,
5,416mammals.
5-10million bacteria

7. TaxonomyTaxonomy [Greek[Greek taxistaxis order +order + nomianomia law]law] science ofscience of
classification including its bases, principles, rules andclassification including its bases, principles, rules and
procedures.procedures.
ClassificationClassification is the process of grouping things togetheris the process of grouping things together
on the basis of the features they have in common. It ison the basis of the features they have in common. It is
a way of summarising what we know – a kind of filinga way of summarising what we know – a kind of filing
system.system.
Classification is a natural occupation of humans. It is
essential to our daily lives and is started almost as
soon as we're born. We need to classify and name
things so we know that we're talking about the same
things.
A plants name is the key to its literature, i.e. it is the key
to what we know about it.

8. ‫الرحيم‬ ‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬‫الرحيم‬ ‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬
‫ل‬َ ‫قا‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ة‬ِ ‫ك‬َ ‫ئ‬ِ ‫مل‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫ا‬ ‫لى‬َ ‫ع‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ض‬َ ‫ر‬َ ‫ع‬َ ‫م‬ّ ‫ث‬ُ ‫ها‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ء‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬ ‫م‬َ ‫د‬َ ‫آ‬ ‫م‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ع‬َ ‫و‬َ‫ل‬َ ‫قا‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ة‬ِ ‫ك‬َ ‫ئ‬ِ ‫مل‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫ا‬ ‫لى‬َ ‫ع‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ض‬َ ‫ر‬َ ‫ع‬َ ‫م‬ّ ‫ث‬ُ ‫ها‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ء‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬ ‫م‬َ ‫د‬َ ‫آ‬ ‫م‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ع‬َ ‫و‬َ
﴿ ‫ن‬َ ‫قي‬ِ ‫د‬ِ ‫صا‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ء‬ِ ‫ؤل‬ُ ‫ه‬َ ‫ء‬ِ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ب‬ِ ‫ني‬ِ ‫ئو‬ُ ‫ب‬ِ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ﴿ ‫ن‬َ ‫قي‬ِ ‫د‬ِ ‫صا‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ء‬ِ ‫ؤل‬ُ ‫ه‬َ ‫ء‬ِ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ب‬ِ ‫ني‬ِ ‫ئو‬ُ ‫ب‬ِ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ3131﴾﴾‫ا‬ْ ‫لو‬ُ ‫قا‬َ‫ا‬ْ ‫لو‬ُ ‫قا‬َ
‫م‬ُ ‫لي‬ِ ‫ع‬َ ‫ٱل‬ ‫ت‬َ ‫أن‬َ ‫ك‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫نا‬َ ‫ت‬َ ‫لم‬ّ ‫ع‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫نا‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫م‬َ ‫عل‬ِ ‫ل‬َ ‫ك‬َ ‫ن‬َ ‫ـ‬ٰ ‫ح‬َ ‫سب‬ُ‫م‬ُ ‫لي‬ِ ‫ع‬َ ‫ٱل‬ ‫ت‬َ ‫أن‬َ ‫ك‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫نا‬َ ‫ت‬َ ‫لم‬ّ ‫ع‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫نا‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫م‬َ ‫عل‬ِ ‫ل‬َ ‫ك‬َ ‫ن‬َ ‫ـ‬ٰ ‫ح‬َ ‫سب‬ُ
‫م‬ُ ‫كي‬ِ ‫ح‬َ ‫ٱل‬‫م‬ُ ‫كي‬ِ ‫ح‬َ ‫ٱل‬﴿﴿3232﴾﴾.( )‫البقرة‬ ‫سورة‬.( )‫البقرة‬ ‫سورة‬
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
And He taught Adam all the names, then showed hem
to the angels, saying: Inform Me of the names of these,
if ye are truthful. [2:31] They said: Be glorified! We
have no knowledge saving that which Thou hast taught
us. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Knower, the Wise.
[2:32]

9. Diversity of life
Special creation - supernatural or divine force
created the universe, its contents and all life forms.
1. Based on faith = a firm belief in something for which
there is no proof.
2. Based on the theory of evolution = life originated, and
evolution proceeds, by random chance.
3. You must accept either evolution or religion, but not
both.

10. ‫الرحيم‬ ‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬
‫لفا‬ِ ‫ت‬َ ‫خ‬ْ ‫م‬ُ ‫ت‬ٍ ‫را‬َ ‫م‬َ ‫ث‬َ ‫ه‬ِ ‫ب‬ِ ‫نا‬َ ‫ج‬ْ ‫ر‬َ ‫خ‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ء‬ً ‫ما‬َ ‫ء‬ِ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ّ ‫ال‬ ‫ن‬َ ‫م‬ِ ‫ل‬َ ‫ز‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ه‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ال‬ ‫ن‬ّ ‫أ‬َ ‫ر‬َ ‫ت‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ل‬َ ‫أ‬َ
‫ب‬ُ ‫بي‬ِ ‫را‬َ ‫غ‬َ ‫و‬َ ‫ها‬َ ‫ن‬ُ ‫وا‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ف‬ٌ ‫ل‬ِ ‫ت‬َ ‫خ‬ْ ‫م‬ُ ‫ر‬ٌ ‫م‬ْ ‫ح‬ُ ‫و‬َ ‫ض‬ٌ ‫بي‬ِ ‫د‬ٌ ‫د‬َ ‫ج‬ُ ‫ل‬ِ ‫با‬َ ‫ج‬ِ ‫ل‬ْ ‫ا‬ ‫ن‬َ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫ها‬َ ‫ن‬ُ ‫وا‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫أ‬َ
﴿ ‫د‬ٌ ‫ــ‬‫ـ‬‫ـو‬‫س‬ُ27﴾‫ه‬ُ ‫ن‬ُ ‫وا‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫أـــ‬َ‫ـ‬‫ف‬ٌ ‫ل‬ِ ‫ت‬َ ‫خ‬ْ ‫مــ‬ُ ‫ـ‬‫م‬ِ ‫عا‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫وــا‬َ ‫ـ‬‫ب‬ّ ‫وا‬َ ‫د‬ّ ‫ـــال‬‫ـ‬‫و‬َ ‫ـ‬‫س‬ِ ‫نا‬ّ ‫اــل‬ ‫ـ‬‫ن‬َ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ
‫فور‬ُ ‫غ‬َ ‫ز‬ٌ ‫زي‬ِ ‫ع‬َ ‫ه‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ال‬ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ء‬ُ ‫ما‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫ع‬ُ ‫ل‬ْ ‫ا‬ ‫ه‬ِ ‫د‬ِ ‫با‬َ ‫ع‬ِ ‫ن‬ْ ‫م‬ِ ‫ه‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ال‬ ‫شى‬َ ‫خ‬ْ ‫ي‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ك‬َ ‫ل‬ِ ‫ذ‬َ ‫ك‬َ
﴿ٌ28( )‫فاطر‬ ‫سورة‬ ﴾
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
Hast thou not seen that Allah causeth water to fall from the
sky, and We produce therewith fruit of divers hues; and
among the mountains are streaks white and red, of divers
hues, and (others) raven-black; (27) And of men and beasts
and cattle, in like manner, divers hues? The erudite among
His bondmen fear Allah alone. Lo! Allah is Mighty, Forgiving.
(28)

11. ‫الرحيم‬ ‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬‫الرحيم‬ ‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬
•‫ذ‬َ ‫خ‬ِ ‫ت‬ّ ‫م‬ُ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ما‬َ ‫و‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ِ ‫س‬ِ ‫ف‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ق‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫خ‬َ ‫ول‬َ ‫ض‬ِ ‫ر‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫وا‬َ ‫ت‬ِ ‫وا‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ّ ‫ال‬ ‫ق‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫خ‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ت‬ُ ‫د‬ْ ‫ه‬َ ‫ش‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ما‬َ‫ذ‬َ ‫خ‬ِ ‫ت‬ّ ‫م‬ُ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ما‬َ ‫و‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ِ ‫س‬ِ ‫ف‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ق‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫خ‬َ ‫ول‬َ ‫ض‬ِ ‫ر‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫وا‬َ ‫ت‬ِ ‫وا‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ّ ‫ال‬ ‫ق‬َ ‫ل‬ْ ‫خ‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ت‬ُ ‫د‬ْ ‫ه‬َ ‫ش‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ما‬َ
﴿ ‫ضدا‬ُ ‫ع‬َ ‫ن‬َ ‫لي‬ّ ‫ض‬ِ ‫م‬ُ ‫ل‬ْ ‫ا‬﴿ ‫ضدا‬ُ ‫ع‬َ ‫ن‬َ ‫لي‬ّ ‫ض‬ِ ‫م‬ُ ‫ل‬ْ ‫ا‬5151( )‫الكهف‬ ‫سورة‬ ﴾( )‫الكهف‬ ‫سورة‬ ﴾
II made them not to witness the creation of the heavens andmade them not to witness the creation of the heavens and
the earth, nor their own creation; nor choose I misleadersthe earth, nor their own creation; nor choose I misleaders
for (My) helpers. (51)for (My) helpers. (51)
•)‫ل‬ ‫ما‬ّ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ِ ‫س‬ِ ‫ف‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫ض‬ُ ‫ر‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ب‬ِ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ما‬ّ ‫م‬ِ ‫ها‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ج‬َ ‫وا‬َ ‫ز‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬ ‫ق‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫خ‬َ ‫ذي‬ِ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ا‬ ‫ن‬َ ‫حا‬َ ‫ب‬ْ ‫س‬ُ)‫ل‬ ‫ما‬ّ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫م‬ْ ‫ه‬ِ ‫س‬ِ ‫ف‬ُ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫م‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫ض‬ُ ‫ر‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ب‬ِ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ت‬ُ ‫ما‬ّ ‫م‬ِ ‫ها‬َ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ج‬َ ‫وا‬َ ‫ز‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫ا‬ ‫ق‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫خ‬َ ‫ذي‬ِ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ا‬ ‫ن‬َ ‫حا‬َ ‫ب‬ْ ‫س‬ُ
﴿ ‫ن‬َ ‫مو‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ع‬ْ ‫ي‬َ﴿ ‫ن‬َ ‫مو‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ع‬ْ ‫ي‬َ3636( )‫يـس‬ّ ‫سورة‬ ﴾( )‫يـس‬ّ ‫سورة‬ ﴾
Glory be to Him Who created all the sexual pairs, of thatGlory be to Him Who created all the sexual pairs, of that
which the earth groweth, and of themselves, and of thatwhich the earth groweth, and of themselves, and of that
which they know not! (36)which they know not! (36)
•﴿ ‫ن‬ُ ‫كو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ل‬ُ ‫قو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ف‬َ ‫مرا‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ضى‬َ ‫ق‬َ ‫ذا‬َ ‫إ‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫ض‬ِ ‫ر‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫وا‬َ ‫ت‬ِ ‫وا‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ّ ‫ال‬ ‫ع‬ُ ‫دي‬ِ ‫ب‬َ﴿ ‫ن‬ُ ‫كو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ل‬ُ ‫قو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ف‬َ ‫مرا‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ضى‬َ ‫ق‬َ ‫ذا‬َ ‫إ‬ِ ‫و‬َ ‫ض‬ِ ‫ر‬ْ ‫ل‬َْ ‫وا‬َ ‫ت‬ِ ‫وا‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫س‬ّ ‫ال‬ ‫ع‬ُ ‫دي‬ِ ‫ب‬َ
117117( )‫البقرة‬ ‫سورة‬ ﴾( )‫البقرة‬ ‫سورة‬ ﴾
The Originator of the heavens and the earth! When HeThe Originator of the heavens and the earth! When He
decreeth a thing, He saith unto it only: Be! and it is. (117)decreeth a thing, He saith unto it only: Be! and it is. (117)
•﴿ ‫ن‬ُ ‫كو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫قو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫يئا‬ْ ‫ش‬َ ‫د‬َ ‫را‬َ ‫أ‬َ ‫ذا‬َ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ر‬ُ ‫م‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ﴿ ‫ن‬ُ ‫كو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫قو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫يئا‬ْ ‫ش‬َ ‫د‬َ ‫را‬َ ‫أ‬َ ‫ذا‬َ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ر‬ُ ‫م‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ8282( )‫يـس‬ّ ‫سورة‬ ﴾( )‫يـس‬ّ ‫سورة‬ ﴾
But His command, when He intendeth a thing, is only thatBut His command, when He intendeth a thing, is only that
he saith unto it: Be! and it is. (82)he saith unto it: Be! and it is. (82)

12. ﴿ ‫ن‬ُ ‫كو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫قو‬ُ ‫ن‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ه‬ُ ‫نا‬َ ‫د‬ْ ‫ر‬َ ‫أ‬َ ‫ذا‬َ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ء‬ٍ ‫ي‬ْ ‫ش‬َ ‫ل‬ِ ‫نا‬َ ‫ل‬ُ ‫و‬ْ ‫ق‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ﴿ ‫ن‬ُ ‫كو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ل‬َ ‫قو‬ُ ‫ن‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ه‬ُ ‫نا‬َ ‫د‬ْ ‫ر‬َ ‫أ‬َ ‫ذا‬َ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ء‬ٍ ‫ي‬ْ ‫ش‬َ ‫ل‬ِ ‫نا‬َ ‫ل‬ُ ‫و‬ْ ‫ق‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ
4040( )‫النحل‬ ‫سورة‬ ﴾( )‫النحل‬ ‫سورة‬ ﴾
And Our word unto a thing, when We intend it, is onlyAnd Our word unto a thing, when We intend it, is only
that We say unto it: Be! and it is.that We say unto it: Be! and it is.
‫ن‬ُ ‫كو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ل‬ُ ‫قو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ف‬َ ‫مرا‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ضى‬َ ‫ق‬َ ‫ذا‬َ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ف‬َ ‫ت‬ُ ‫مي‬ِ ‫ي‬ُ ‫و‬َ ‫يي‬ِ ‫ح‬ْ ‫ي‬ُ ‫ذي‬ِ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ا‬ ‫و‬َ ‫ه‬ُ‫ن‬ُ ‫كو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ف‬َ ‫ن‬ْ ‫ك‬ُ ‫ه‬ُ ‫ل‬َ ‫ل‬ُ ‫قو‬ُ ‫ي‬َ ‫ما‬َ ‫ن‬ّ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ف‬َ ‫مرا‬ْ ‫أ‬َ ‫ضى‬َ ‫ق‬َ ‫ذا‬َ ‫إ‬ِ ‫ف‬َ ‫ت‬ُ ‫مي‬ِ ‫ي‬ُ ‫و‬َ ‫يي‬ِ ‫ح‬ْ ‫ي‬ُ ‫ذي‬ِ ‫ل‬ّ ‫ا‬ ‫و‬َ ‫ه‬ُ
﴿﴿6868﴾﴾
( )‫غافر‬ ‫سورة‬( )‫غافر‬ ‫سورة‬
He it is Who quickeneth and giveth death. When He
ordaineth a thing, He saith unto it only: Be! and it is.
‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬‫الرحمن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫بسم‬
‫الرحيم‬‫الرحيم‬

13. History of Plant Taxonomy
Taxonomy is probably the oldest science and certainly almost
from the beginning of human existence plants have been classified
based on their edibility, and other uses to humans.
The development of plant taxonomy has at least five distinct periods:
Preliterate: since this is pre written record, we have little direct
knowledge of this period.
* The Egyptians knew wheat, olive trees, grapevines and fig trees.
Also, they produced paper out of the pith of papyrus (Cyperus
papyrus).
* However, through the years, all cultures have learned which of
the plants around them are useful, whether for medicines, food,
clothing, shelter, weapons, etc.

14. II Ancient literate
The development of writing.
Western taxonomy starts in ancient Greece.
Aristotle: (384 BC – 322 BC)
was a Greek philosopher, a
student of Plato and teacher of
Alexander the Great. He wrote on
many subjects, including physics,
metaphysics, poetry, theater,
music, logic, rhetoric, politics,
government, ethics, biology and
zoology.

15. Theophrastus (370-285) BC,
Greek who studied under Plato
and Aristotle and considered
grandfather of botany.
1. He wrote more than 200 works only a few of
which survived. The most important were:
Enquiry Into Plants, and The Causes of
Plants.
2. Was a friend of Alexander the Great who had a botanical interest and
who sent him plants from his travels.
3. Wrote about 500 species of plants and described cotton, pepper,
cinnamon, bananas and named many modern genera including
Asparagus and Narcissus.

16. Among his most significant observations are:
1. distinctions between external (organs) vs. internal (tissue) structures.
2. distinction between different kinds of tissues.
3. classification into trees, shrubs, subshrubs and herbs.
4. distinction between flowering vs. non-flowering plants.
5. recognition of different kinds of sexual & asexual reproduction.
6. understood basic anatomy, e.g. sepals & petals modified leaves.
7. true understanding of fruits.

17. Pedanius Dioscorides (1st century A.D.)
A Roman military surgeon, added
about 100 additional species from the
Mediterranean flora and some
illustrations to produce a similar
document, Materia Medica, that
described the plants and their medicinal
applications. This included natural
groupings of species that represent well-
defined modern Families (Fabaceae,
Apiaceae, Lamiaceae).
This five book study (Materia Medica )
became the most central pharmacological
work in Europe and the Middle East for
the next sixteen centuries.

18. The Islamic Golden Age or Islamic Renaissance
= Medieval or dark ages in Europe
During the Muslim conquests of the 7th and early 8th centuries,
Rashidun armies established the Islamic Empire, which was one
of the ten largest empires in history.
During this period the Muslim world became the unrivalled
intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education
as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and
established the "House of Wisdom" (Arabic:‫الحكمة‬ ‫)بيت‬ in
Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to
translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic. Many
classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been
forgotten were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated
into Turkish, Persian, Hebrew and Latin.

19. Jabir Ibn Haiyan (721-815 C.E.)
He had established himself as one
of the leading scientist while he
practiced medicine and alchemy
in Kufa (in present day Iraq).
He introduced experimental
investigation into alchemy
(derived from Arabic word al-
Kimiya), creating the momentum
for the modern chemistry.
He and other Arab chemists were able to extract different
anesthetic compounds from local herbs for local or general
anesthetization.

20. Ābu anīfah Ā mad ibnḤ ḥ
Dawūd Dīnawarī (828–896C.E.)
Al-Dinawari is considered the
founder of Arabic botany for his
Kitab al-Nabat (Book of Plants),
which consisted of six volumes. Only
the third and fifth volumes have
survived, though the sixth volume has
partly been reconstructed based on
citations from later works. In the
surviving portions of his works, 637
plants are described from the letters
sin to ya. He also discusses plant
evolution from its birth to its death,
describing the phases of plant growth
and the production of flowers and
fruit.

21. Avicenna (Hussain ibn
Abdullah ibn Hassan ibn Ali
ibn Sina).
(born c. 980 near Bukhara,
contemporary Uzbekistan,
died 1037 in Hamedan in
modern Iran) was a polymath
and the foremost physician
and philosopher of his time.
He was also an astronomer,
chemist, geologist, logician,
paleontologist, mathematician,
physicist, poet, psychologist,
scientist, and teacher.

22. About 100 treatises were ascribed to Ibn Sina. Some of them are
tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through
several volumes. The best-known amongst them, and that to
which Ibn Sina owed his European reputation, is his 14-volume
The Canon of Medicine, which was a standard medical text in
Europe and the Islamic world up until the 18th century.

23. An Arab scientist, botanist, pharmacistAn Arab scientist, botanist, pharmacist
and physician. He is considered one ofand physician. He is considered one of
the greatest scientists of Al-Andalus andthe greatest scientists of Al-Andalus and
is believed to be one of the greatestis believed to be one of the greatest
botanists and pharmacists of the Islamicbotanists and pharmacists of the Islamic
Golden Age and Muslim AgriculturalGolden Age and Muslim Agricultural
Revolution.Revolution.
Dhiya al-Din Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn AhmadDhiya al-Din Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad
Ibn al-Baitar al-Malaqi (1197- 1248)Ibn al-Baitar al-Malaqi (1197- 1248)
He learned botany from the Málagan botanist Ibn-i-Rumia (Abu al-Abbas
al-Nabati) with whom he started collecting plants in and around Spain. Al-
Nabati was responsible for developing an early scientific method,
introducing empirical and experimental techniques in the testing,
description and identification of numerous materia medica, and
separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and
observations. Such an approach was thus adopted by Ibn al-Baitar.

24. In 1219, Ibn al-Baitar left Málaga to travel in the Islamic world to collect
plants. He travelled from the northern coast of Africa as far as Anatolia.
After 1224, he entered the service of al-Kamil, an Ayyubid Sultan, and
was appointed chief herbalist. In 1227 al-Kamil extended his domination
to Damascus, and Ibn al-Baitar accompanied him there which provided
him an opportunity to collect plants in Syria. His researches on plants
extended over a vast area including Arabia and Palestine. He died in
Damascus in 1248.
Ibn al-Baitar’s major contribution is Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-
Mufrada, which is considered one of the greatest botanical compilations
in history, and was a botanical authority for centuries. It was also a
pharmacopoeia (pharmaceutical encyclopedia) and contains details on at
least listing 1,400 plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which were his own
original discoveries. His work was translated into Latin in 1758 and was
being used in Europe up until the early 19th century. The book also
contains references to 150 other previous Arabic authors as well as 20
previous Greek authors.

25. Ibn Al-Baitar’s second major work is
Kitab al-Mlughni fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada
which is an encyclopedia of Islamic
medicine, which incorporates his
knowledge of plants extensively for the
treatment of various ailments, including
diseases related to the head, ear, eye, etc.
In cancer therapy, Ibn al-Baitar
discovered the earliest known herbal
treatment for cancer: "Hindiba", a
herbal drug which he identified as
having "anticancer" properties and
which could also treat other tumors and
neoplastic disorders. After recognizing
its usefulness in treating neoplastic
disorders, Hindiba was patented in 1997
by Nil Sari, Hanzade Dogan, and John
K. Snyder.

26. Dā’ūd ibn ‘Umar al-Ant ākī (1543-1599)Dā’ūd ibn ‘Umar al-Ant ākī (1543-1599) was born inwas born in
Antioch in Syria. He was blind atAntioch in Syria. He was blind at)) birth, but nonetheless hebirth, but nonetheless he
learned Greek, in addition to Arabic, in order to be able tolearned Greek, in addition to Arabic, in order to be able to
fully understand the earlier authorities. He worked in Cairofully understand the earlier authorities. He worked in Cairo
and in Damascus, and died in Mecca in 1599. He produced aand in Damascus, and died in Mecca in 1599. He produced a
number of Arabic treatises, the most famous being hisnumber of Arabic treatises, the most famous being his
TadhkirahTadhkirah or "Memorandum Book"or "Memorandum Book", which is still available, which is still available
today in bookstalls in Egypt in modern printings. Less welltoday in bookstalls in Egypt in modern printings. Less well
known is his medical compendium with the elaborate titleknown is his medical compendium with the elaborate title
Risālat al-nuzhah al-mubhijah fī tash īdh al-adhhān wa-ta‘dīlḥRisālat al-nuzhah al-mubhijah fī tash īdh al-adhhān wa-ta‘dīlḥ
al-amzijahal-amzijah ‫الزمزجة‬ ‫يل‬‫ي‬‫وتعدي‬ ‫الهذهان‬ ‫يذ‬‫ي‬‫تشحي‬ ‫يى‬‫ي‬‫ف‬ ‫ية‬‫ي‬‫المبهج‬ ‫ية‬‫ي‬‫النزه‬ ‫يالة‬‫ي‬‫رس‬‫الزمزجة‬ ‫يل‬‫ي‬‫وتعدي‬ ‫الهذهان‬ ‫يذ‬‫ي‬‫تشحي‬ ‫يى‬‫ي‬‫ف‬ ‫ية‬‫ي‬‫المبهج‬ ‫ية‬‫ي‬‫النزه‬ ‫يالة‬‫ي‬‫رس‬
((Pleasure and Delight in Sharpening the Intellect andPleasure and Delight in Sharpening the Intellect and
Correcting the TemperamentsCorrecting the Temperaments)), which is sometimes printed in, which is sometimes printed in
the margins of modern editions of histhe margins of modern editions of his TadhkirahTadhkirah..

27. Abu Abdallah Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn
Abdallah Ibn Idris al-Qurtubi al-Hasani, was born in
Ceuta, Spain, in 1099 C.E.
Idrisi wrote on botany, geography, fauna, zoology and therapeutical
aspects. His work was soon translated into Latin and, especially, his books
on geography remained popular both in the East and the West for several
centuries.
His major contribution lies in medicinal plants as presented in his several
books, specially Kitab al-Jami-li-Sifat Ashtat al-Nabatat. He studied and
reviewed all the literature on the subject of medicinal plants and formed
the opinion that very little original material had been added to this
branch of knowledge since the early Greek work. He, therefore, collected
plants and data not reported earlier and added this to the subject of
botany, with special reference to medicinal plants. Thus, a large number
of new drugs plants together with their evaluation became available to the
medical practitioners. He has given the names of the drugs in six
languages: Syriac, Greek, Persian, Hindi, Latin and Berber.

28. Renaissance:
Started ca. 14th century in Italy.
A) Two major technological innovations contributed to renaissance and
especially to plant taxonomy:
1. Printing press: Which made knowledge available to all and botanical-
medical books called herbals became popular.
2. Science of navigation: Navigation started the age of exploration and
almost immediately the number of known plants increased
dramatically. New systems of classification were needed to handle this
increase.
B) Basically four distinct periods to this era:
1. Herbalists - (1500's) motivated by practical considerations, i.e. medical
and agricultural uses of plants. No real systems of classification but
marked period of original work rather than copying the ancients work.
These books were based on first hand observations by the authors and
provided detailed and accurate description of the plants of medicinal
use.

29. 2. 17th century - Large numbers of new plants from
voyages necessitated better systems of classification.
Caspar Bauhin (1560-1624)
(Swiss) Wrote Pinax which was a register of
plants know to science at that time. He also
included other names for the plants, i.e.
SYNONYMY. Also generally credited with
modern concept of genera and species. He also
experimented with BINOMIAL system of
naming plants.
Andrea Cesalpino (1603-1519) (Italian) tried
to base classification on logic rather than
utilitarian concepts (such as medicinal uses).
He realized that some features are more
meaningful than others in classification, a
priori reasoning (today emphasis on floral
features).

30. John Ray (1626-1705)
British naturalist divided plants into
nonflowering and flowering types, and
flowering plants into dicots and monocots.
Carolus Linnaeus (1778-1707)
Linnaeus, a Swedish physician, is considered
the father of plant taxonomy and one of his
works, Species Plantarum (1753) is the
starting point for modern taxonomy.
He realized that some characters were more
useful than others and he developed a Sexual
System of classification which was based on
3. Linnaean period - 18th century. By end of
17th century there were too many new plants
to deal with and plants were referred to by
descriptive Latin phrases.

31. the numbers of reproductive parts. Purely artificial but allowed one
to easily identify an unknown plant by keying it out much as we do
today. He described 100's of species, all binomials that have a L.
after them. His most significant contribution was the consistent use
of the binomial system in which each species was referred to by only
two names, the genus and specific epithet.
Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-
Haytham (965-1040 C.E.)
An Egyptian polymath (born in Iraq) whose
research in geometry and optics was
influential into the 17th century; he was the
first person to test hypotheses with verifiable
experiments, developing the scientific
method more than 200 years
before European scholars learned of it—by
reading his books.

32. He made a thorough examination of the passage of light
through various media and discovered the laws of refraction.
He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of
light into its constituent colours. His book Kitab-al-Manadhir
was translated into Latin in the Middle Ages, as also his book
dealing with the colours of sunset.
First record of using glass lens for magnification was by him.
He is the first to describe accurately the various parts of the eye
and give a scientific explanation of the process of vision.
He is known for the earliest use of the camera obscura.
He contradicted Ptolemy's and Euclid's theory of vision that
objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes;
according to him the rays originate in the object of vision and
not in the eye.
Through these extensive researches on optics, he has been
considered as the father of modern Optics.

33. Antonie van LeeuwenhoekAntonie van Leeuwenhoek
(1632—1723)(1632—1723)
Dutch microscopist, whoseDutch microscopist, whose
simple, single lens microscope
(glass bead in metal holder)
enabled him to give the firstenabled him to give the first
accurate description ofaccurate description of three
shapes of bacterial cells.
Robert HookeRobert Hooke
(1635-1703(1635-1703))
he described his microscopic
observations of plant tissues
and coined the term cell.

34. Nehemiah Grew (1641 - 1712)
Botanist and physician uses the microscope to
give a thorough description of plants in The
Anatomy of Vegetables.
Wilhelm Friedrich Benedikt Hofmeister (1824 to
1877)
German biologist and botanist. He is widely
credited with discovery of alternation of
generations as a general principle in plant life. His
proposal that alteration between haploid and
diploid phases constituted a unifying theory of
plant evolution that was published in 1851, eight
years before Darwin's (On the origin of species).

35. Eichler, August Wilhelm 1839–1887
German botanist that modified former systems
to reflect a better relationship between plants.
The plant kingdom was divided into non-floral
plants (Cryptogamae) and floral plants
(Phanerogamae) by him.
Eichler system was the foundation for Adolf Engler's System and it
had large acceptance worldwide (mainly in Europe).
Eichler System is the first one in which the concept of Evolution was
accepted and therefore it was also the first one to be considered
phylogenetic. Moreover Eichler was the first taxonomist to separate
Phanerogamae in Angiosperms and Gymnosperms and the former
in Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae.

36. Ernst Ruska
1906-1988
Max Knoll
1897–1969
Louis
de Broglie
1892-1987
Louis Victor, duc de Broglie hypothesized in 1924 the theory of wave
nature of electrons.
Ernst Ruska discovered the principle of electron microscopy when
he established that electron beams can be focused like light in a lens.
In 1931, together with Bodo von Borries and Max Knoll at the
Technical University in Berlin, he built the first microscope that
functioned according to this principle. In 1939 Ruska and von
Borries developed a marketable electron microscope in the Siemens
Laboratory for Electron Optics and Electron Microscopy.
Bodo von
Borries
1905-1956

37. Organisms
Plant
Kingdom
Animal
kingdom
Autotrophic
Non-motile
Have Cell Walls
Seeds or spores
Heterotrophic
motile
Have nervous
system
Naked cells
lay eggs or birth
Bacteria Fungi
Thallophytes
Thallus= A plant body
undifferentiated into
stem, root, or leaf.
Euglenophyta
Hogg 1860Hogg 1860
Suggest ProtoctistaSuggest Protoctista
Ernst Haeckel 1866Ernst Haeckel 1866
Three KingdomsThree Kingdoms
ProtozoaProtozoa
FungiFungi
AlgaeAlgae

38. French biologist who firstFrench biologist who first
distinguished between thedistinguished between the
eukaryotic andeukaryotic and
prokaryotic systems ofprokaryotic systems of
cellular organisation, andcellular organisation, and
coined the termscoined the terms
themselves in his 1925themselves in his 1925
paper.paper.
Edouard ChattonEdouard Chatton
))18831883--19471947((

39. Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells
small cells (< 5 mm( larger cells (> 10 mm(
always unicellular often multicellular
no nucleus or any membrane-
bound organelles
always have nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles
DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated with
proteins to form chromatin
ribosomes are small (70S( ribosomes are large (80S(
no cytoskeleton
No Endocytosis or ExocytosisEndocytosis or Exocytosis
always has a cytoskeleton
Endocytosis or ExocytosisEndocytosis or Exocytosis
cell division is by binary fission cell division is by mitosis or
meiosis
reproduction is always asexual reproduction is asexual or sexual

40. Prokryotic cell

41. 1. Exocytosis- transport vesicles migrate to plasma membrane
& fuse & release contents.
2. Endocytosis- large molecules enter cells within vesicles
pinched inward from the membrane.
Exocytosis & Endocytosis Transport Large Molecules

42. Eukryotic
Cell

44. Herbert Copeland 1956
PlantaePlantae
AnimaliaAnimalia
Protoctistarotoctista
MoneraMonera

45. ProtistaProtista
Microscopic organismsMicroscopic organisms
of doubtful natureof doubtful nature
Some are probablySome are probably
plantsplants,,
others animalsothers animals..
Diverse nutritional andDiverse nutritional and
reproductive modesreproductive modes
MoneraMonera
Monocellular,Monocellular,
prokaryoticprokaryotic
fission, sporulation,fission, sporulation,
buddingbudding
bacteria and cyanophytesbacteria and cyanophytes
primitive pathogensprimitive pathogens
Absorption,Absorption,
photosynthesisphotosynthesis
or chemosynthesisor chemosynthesis
FungiFungi
HeterotrophicHeterotrophic
Chitinous cell wallChitinous cell wall
Most are multicellularMost are multicellular
filamentsfilaments
(hyphae forming(hyphae forming
a mycelium)a mycelium)
Sexual and asexualSexual and asexual
reproductionreproduction
via sporesvia spores
Animalia
Multicellular,
heterotrophic
eukaryotes
capable of mobility
Cells lacking
cell walls
PlantaePlantae
ImmobileImmobile
Eukaryotic multi-cellularEukaryotic multi-cellular
organism, produces foodorganism, produces food
through photosynthesis.through photosynthesis.
cells surrounded bycells surrounded by
a rigid cell walla rigid cell wall
WhittakerWhittaker 19691969
MargulisMargulis 19741974
WhittakerWhittaker && MargulisMargulis 19781978

46. Development of classification systemsDevelopment of classification systems
Some scientists like (Bell and Hemsley, 2000(, suggested that plantSome scientists like (Bell and Hemsley, 2000(, suggested that plant
kingdom contains all photosynthetic organisms that uses CO2 as a carbonkingdom contains all photosynthetic organisms that uses CO2 as a carbon
source and H2O as a hydrogen source with producing O2 as a result ofsource and H2O as a hydrogen source with producing O2 as a result of
the photosynthetic process. According to this assumption the prokaryoticthe photosynthetic process. According to this assumption the prokaryotic
Cyanobactria and unicellular eukaryotic algae are plants. ThisCyanobactria and unicellular eukaryotic algae are plants. This
assumption will followed during this course.assumption will followed during this course.