3. BASIC CONCEPT
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral
psychology, is a theory of learning which states
all behaviors are learned through interaction with
the environment through a process called
conditioning.
Thus, behavior is simply a response to
environmental stimuli.
Behaviorism is only concerned with observable
stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be
studied in a systematic and observable manner.
4. • Behaviourism is derived from the
belief that free will is an illusion.
According to a pure
behaviourist, human beings are
shaped entirely by their external
environment.
• Alter a person's environment, and
you will alter his or her thoughts,
feelings, and behaviour.
• Provide positive reinforcement
whenever students perform a
desired behaviour, and soon they
will learn to perform the
behaviour on their own.
Free will is an illusion
5. WHAT IS LEARNING?
Behaviorists often define learning
as a relative permanent change
in behavior as a result of
experience.
One of the first thinkers to study
how learning influences behavior
was psychologist john B. Wetson
who suggested that all the
behaviors are the result of
learning processes.
The School of thought that
emerged from John B. Wetson
was Behaviourism that sought to
measure only observable
behavior.
6. Learning by
Trial and Error
Method
Learning by
Insights
Observational
Learning
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Methods of
Learning
7. TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD
• Trial and error method involves
learning by trying alternative
possibilities until the desired
outcome is achieved.
• It is the simplest way of learning.
• Correct response must be
rewarded.
• The first miniature Trial and Error
learning system of the method
was provided by Thorndike’s
research on Animal Intelligence
in 1898.
9. LEARNING BY INSIGHTS
• Learning by insights means sudden
grasping of the solution, a flash of
understanding, without any process of trial
and error.
• This is also called gestalt theory of learning.
The word “gestalt” in German language
means “Whole”, “Total Pattern” or
“Configuration”.
• This school of thought believes that the
whole is more important than the parts. So,
learning also takes place as a whole.
• Wolfgang Kohler was the psychologist who
conducted experiments in which insights
learning was observed in animal behavior.
11. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• Observational Learning describes the
process of learning through watching
others, retaining the information, and
then later replicating the behaviors that
were observed.
• Observational Learning is sometimes also
referred to as Shaping, modeling, and
Vicerious reinforcement.
• This is indirect form of learning.
• This is very important to socialization
process.
13. A BRIEF HISTORY OF BEHAVIORISM
• Behaviorism was formally established with
the 1913 publication of John B. Watson's
classic paper, "Psychology as the
Behaviorist Views It.“
• From about 1920 through the mid-1950s,
behaviorism grew to become the
dominant school of thought in psychology.
Some suggest that the popularity of
behavioral psychology grew out of the
desire to establish psychology as an
objective and measurable science.
• At this time, researchers were interested in
creating theories that could be clearly
described and empirically measured but
also used to make contributions that
might have an influence on the fabric of
everyday human lives.
14. THE SUM UP OF THE ARTICLE
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well
informed, and my own specified world to
bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take
anyone at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might
select--doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-
chief; and yes, even beggar-man and
thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race
of his ancestors." John Watson
15. ALL BEHAVIOR IS LEARNED FROM
THE ENVIRONMENT:
Behaviorism emphasizes the role of
environmental factors in influencing
behavior, to the near exclusion of
innate or inherited factors. This amounts
essentially to a focus on learning.
We learn new behavior through
classical or operant conditioning
(collectively known as 'learning theory').
Therefore, when born our mind is
'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).
16. PSYCHOLOGY SHOULD BE SEEN
AS A SCIENCE:
Theories need to be supported by empirical data
obtained through careful and controlled
observation and measurement of behavior. Watson
(1913) stated that:
'Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely
objective experimental branch of natural science.
Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.' (p.
158).
The components of a theory should be as simple as
possible. Behaviorists propose the use of
operational definitions (defining variables in terms
of observable, measurable events).
17. BEHAVIORISM IS PRIMARILY
CONCERNED WITH OBSERVABLE
BEHAVIOR, AS OPPOSED TO INTERNAL
EVENTS LIKE THINKING AND EMOTION:
While behaviorists often accept the existence of
cognitions and emotions, they prefer not to study
them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can
be objectively and scientifically measured.
Therefore, internal events, such as thinking should be
explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated
altogether).
18. THERE IS LITTLE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
THE LEARNING THAT TAKES PLACE IN
HUMANS AND THAT IN OTHER
ANIMALS:
There's no fundamental (qualitative)
distinction between human and animal
behavior. Therefore, research can be
carried out on animals as well as humans
(i.e., comparative psychology).
Consequently, rats and pigeons became
the primary source of data for behaviorists,
as their environments could be easily
controlled.
19. BEHAVIOR IS THE RESULT OF
STIMULUS-RESPONSE:
All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a
simple stimulus-response association). Watson described the
purpose of psychology as:
'To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place;
or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is
that has caused the reaction.' (1930, p. 11).
20. TYPES OF BEHAVIORISM
• Historically, the most significant
distinction between versions of
behaviorism is that between
Watson's original 'methodological
behaviorism,' and forms of
behaviorism later inspired by his work,
known collectively as
neobehaviorism (e.g., radical
behaviorism).
Methodological
behaviourism
Radical
Behaviourism
21. METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM
Watson's article 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it' is often
referred to as the 'behaviorist manifesto,' in which Watson (1913,
p. 158) outlines the principles of all behaviorists:
'Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective
experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is
the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no
essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data
dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves
to interpretation in terms of consciousness.
The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal
response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute.
The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity,
forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of
investigation'.
22. RADICAL BEHAVIORISM
Radical behaviorism was founded by B.F Skinner and agreed
with the assumption of methodological behaviorism that the
goal of psychology should be to predict and control behavior.
Skinner, like Watson, also recognized the role of internal mental
events, and while he agreed such private events could not be
used to explain behavior, he proposed they should be
explained in the analysis of behavior.
Another important distinction between methodological and
radical behaviorism concerns the extent to which
environmental factors influence behavior. Watson's (1913)
methodological behaviorism asserts the mind is tabula rasa (a
blank slate) at birth.
In contrast, radical behaviorism accepts the view that
organisms are born with innate behaviors, and thus recognizes
the role of genes and biological components in behavior.
24. TWO TYPES OF CONDITIONING
• According to behavioral
psychology, there are two
major types of conditioning,
• classical conditioning
• operant conditioning.
25. OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Operant conditioning (sometimes
referred to as instrumental
conditioning) is a method of learning
that occurs
through reinforcements and punishmen
ts. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a
behavior and a consequence for that
behavior.
• When a desirable result follows an
action, the behavior becomes more
likely to occur again in the future.
Responses followed by adverse
outcomes, on the other hand, become
less likely to happen again in the future.
26. THE HISTORY OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning was first
described by behaviorist B.F.
Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as
Skinnerian conditioning. As a
behaviorist, Skinner believed that
it was not really necessary to look
at internal thoughts and
motivations in order to explain
behavior. Instead, he suggested,
we should look only at the
external, observable causes of
human behavior.
Through the first part of the 20th
century, behaviorism became a
major force within psychology.
The ideas of John B.
Watson dominated this school of
thought early on. Watson focused
on the principles of classical
conditioning, once famously
suggesting that he could take
any person regardless of their
background and train them to be
anything he chose.
27. Early behaviorists focused
their interests on associative
learning. Skinner was more
interested in how
the consequences of people's
actions influenced their
behavior.
His theory was heavily
influenced by the work of
psychologist Edward Thorndike,
who had proposed what he
called the law of effect.
According to this principle,
actions that are followed by
desirable outcomes are more
likely to be repeated while
those followed by undesirable
outcomes are less likely to be
repeated.
28. TYPES OF BEHAVIORS
Respondent Behaviours
• Respondent behaviors are those
that occur automatically and
reflexively, such as pulling your
hand back from a hot stove or
jerking your leg when the doctor
taps on your knee.
• You don't have to learn these
behaviors. They simply occur
automatically and involuntarily.
Operant Behaviours
• Operant behaviors, on the other hand,
are those under our conscious control.
Some may occur spontaneously and
others purposely, but it is the
consequences of these actions that
then influence whether or not they
occur again in the future.
• Our actions on the environment and
the consequences of that action make
up an important part of the learning
process.
29. COMPONENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Reinforcement
in Operant
Conditioning
Punishment in
operant
conditioning
30. LEARNING BY REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement learning (RL) deals with the ability of
learning the associations between stimuli, actions, and
the occurrence of pleasant events, called rewards, or
pleasant events called punishments.
The term “Reinforcement” indicates the process of
forming and strengthening of these associations by
the “reinforce”, which encompasses both rewards
(positive reinforcers) and punishments (negative
reinforcers).
There are two types of reinforcement
positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
31. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Something is added to increase the
likelihood of a behavior.
For example, giving a bit candy or some
money to a child after she cleans up her
room.
32. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Something is removed to increase the
likelihood of behavior.
For example, canceling a quiz if students
turn in all of their homework for the week.
By removing the aversive stimulus (the
quiz), the teacher hopes to increase the
desired behavior (completing all
homework).
33. LEARNING BY PUNISHMENT
Punishment is a term used in operant
conditioning to refer to any change
that occurs after a behavior that
reduces the likelihood of that behavior
that will occur again in the future.
Punishment is focused on reducing or
eliminating unwanted behaviors.
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner, the psychologist
who first described operant
conditioning, identified two different
kinds of stimuli that can be used as
punishment.
Aversive stimuli
Desired stimuli
34. TYPES OF STIMULI
• An aversive stimulus is an
unpleasant event that is intended to
decrease the probability of a
behavior when it is presented as a
consequence (i.e., punishment).
• Deirsed stimuli are the
Rewarding stimuli, which are
associated with "wanting" and
"liking"
35. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
• This type of punishment is also known as “punishment by application”.
• Positive punishment involves presenting an aversive stimulus after a behavior
has occurred.
• For example, when a student talks out of turn in the middle of class, the
teacher might scold the child for interrupting her.
36. NRGATIVE PUNISHMENT
• This type of punishment is also known as “punishment by removal”.
• Negative punishment involves taking away a desired stimulus after a
behavior has occurred.
• For example, when the student from the previous example talks out of turn
again, the teacher promptly tells the child that he will have to miss recess
because of his behavior.
37. REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES
• Reinforcement is not necessarily a
straightforward process, and there are a
number of factors that can influence how
quickly and how well new things are learned.
Skinner found that when and how
often behaviors were reinforced played a
role in the speed and strength of acquisition.
In other words, the timing and frequency of
reinforcement influenced how new
behaviors were learned and how old
behaviors were modified.
• Skinner identified several different schedules
of reinforcement that impact the operant
conditioning process:
38.
39. EXAMPLES OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us.
Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from
a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or
promotions. More examples of operant conditioning in action include:
• After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from
the audience. This acts as a positive reinforcer, inspiring you to try out for
more performance roles.
• You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head
whenever he performs the behavior correctly. This is another positive
reinforcer.
• A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester,
then they do not have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing
an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students are negatively reinforced to
attend class regularly.
40. • If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and
berates your performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive
punisher, making it less likely that you will finish projects late in the future.
• A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take
away her phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative
punishment in which a positive stimulus is taken away.
• In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an
increase in behavior. Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a
behavior via the removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a
negative outcome. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess
privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may
lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.
41. STRENGTHS OF BEHAVIORISM
Focuses on observable,
measurable behaviors
Useful for modifying
behaviors in the real-
world
Useful applications in
therapy, education,
parenting, child care
Scientific and replicable
42. Does not account for biological influences
Does not explain all learning
Does not consider moods, thoughts, or
feelings
Weaknesses
of
behaviorism
43. INFLUENCERS AND IMPACT
• Several thinkers influenced behavioral psychology. In
addition to those already mentioned, there are a
number of prominent theorists and psychologists who
left an indelible mark on behavioral psychology.
Among these are Edward Thorndike, a pioneering
psychologist who described the law of effect,
and Clark Hull, who proposed the drive theory of
learning.
• There are a number of therapeutic techniques rooted
in behavioral psychology. Though behavioral
psychology assumed more of a background position
after 1950, its principles still remain important.
• Even today, behavior analysis is often used as a
therapeutic technique to help children with autism
and developmental delays acquire new skills. It
frequently involves processes such as shaping
(rewarding closer approximations to the desired
behavior) and chaining (breaking a task down into
smaller parts and then teaching and chaining the
subsequent steps together).
45. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in
behavioral training in which a neutral stimulus is paired
with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the
neutral stimulus comes to evoke the same response as
the naturally occurring stimulus, even without the
naturally occurring stimulus presenting itself.
• Throughout the course of three distinct phases, the
associated stimulus becomes known as the conditioned
stimulus and the learned behavior is known as
the conditioned response.
• Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical
conditioning is a learning process that occurs through
associations between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus.
46. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING BASICS
• Although classical conditioning was not
discovered by a psychologist at all, it had a
tremendous influence over the school of
thought in psychology known as behaviorism.
• Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral
signal before a naturally occurring reflex. In
Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the
neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the
naturally occurring reflex was salivating in
response to food. By associating the neutral
stimulus with the environmental stimulus (food),
the sound of the tone alone could produce the
salivation response.
47. HOW CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
WORKS
• In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is
important to become familiar with the basic principles of the process. Classical
conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a
learned response. There are three basic phases of this process.
phase1- Before Conditioning
phase2- during Conditioning
phase 3- After Conditioning
48. PHASE 1: BEFORE CONDITIONING
• The first part of the classical conditioning process
requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will
automatically elicit a response. Salivating in
response to the smell of food is a good example
of a naturally occurring stimulus.
• During this phase of the processes, the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an
unconditioned response (UCR). For example,
presenting food (the UCS) naturally and
automatically triggers a salivation response (the
UCR).
• At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that
produces no effect—yet. It isn't until this neutral
stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to
evoke a response.
49. PHASE 2: DURING CONDITIONING
• During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral
stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing,
an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.
• At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
The subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The conditioned
stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the
unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
• In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also
heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the
sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the whistle sound would
eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the
conditioned stimulus.
50. PHASE 3: AFTER CONDITIONING
• Once the association has been made
between the UCS and the CS, presenting
the conditioned stimulus alone will come
to evoke a response even without the
unconditioned stimulus. The resulting
response is known as the conditioned
response (CR).
• The conditioned response is the learned
response to the previously neutral stimulus.
In our example, the conditioned response
would be feeling hungry when you heard
the sound of the whistle.
51. KEY PRINCIPLES
1: ACQUISITON
• Acquisition is the initial stage of learning
when a response is first established and
gradually strengthened. During the
acquisition phase of classical conditioning,
a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with
an unconditioned stimulus.
• As you may recall, an unconditioned
stimulus is something that naturally and
automatically triggers a response without
any learning. After an association is made,
the subject will begin to emit a behavior in
response to the previously neutral stimulus,
which is now known as a conditioned
stimulus. It is at this point that we can say
that the response has been acquired.
52. EXTINCTION
• Extinction is when the
occurrences of a
conditioned response
decrease or disappear. In
classical conditioning, this
happens when a
conditioned stimulus is no
longer paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
53. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
• Sometimes a learned response
can suddenly reemerge even
after a period of
extinction. Spontaneous
recovery is the reappearance of
the conditioned response after a
rest period or period of lessened
response.
54. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
• Stimulus generalization is the tendency for
the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has been
conditioned.
• In John B. Watson's famous Little Albert
Experiment, for example, a small child was
conditioned to fear a white rat. The child
demonstrated stimulus generalization by
also exhibiting fear in response to other
fuzzy white objects including stuffed toys
and Watson's own hair.
56. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EXAMPLES
• It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning
process operates both in experimental and real-world settings.
• Little Albert experiment
• Taste Aversion
57. FEAR RESPONSE
• John B.
Watson's experiment with
Little Albert is a perfect
example of the fear
response. The child initially
showed no fear of a
white rat, but after the rat
was paired repeatedly
with loud, scary sounds,
the child would cry when
the rat was present. The
child's fear also
generalized to other fuzzy
white objects.
This experiment illustrates
how phobias can form
through classical
conditioning. In many cases,
a single pairing of a neutral
stimulus (a dog, for
example) and a frightening
experience (being bitten by
the dog) can lead to a
lasting phobia (being afraid
of dogs).
58. TASTE AVERSIONS
• Why do such associations
develop so quickly?
Obviously, forming such
associations can have
survival benefits for the
organism. If an animal eats
something that makes it ill,
it needs to avoid eating
the same food in the future
to avoid sickness or even
death.
• This is a great example of
what is known as biological
preparedness. Some
associations form more
readily because they aid in
survival.
Another example of classical conditioning
can be seen in the development of
conditioned taste aversions. Researchers
John Garcia and Bob Koelling first noticed
this phenomenon when they observed how
rats that had been exposed to a nausea-
causing radiation developed an aversion to
flavored water after the radiation and the
water were presented together.
