2. Reactive vs. nonreactive research
Reactive: people being studied are aware of
being studied
Experiments
Surveys
Nonreactive: Subjects are unaware they are
being studied
Unobtrusive measures
Often use naturalistic settings
3. Varieties of nonreactive observation
Erosion measures
– selective wear
Accretion measures
– deposits of something left behind.
4. Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths and advantages
No subject “confounds”
Can assess actual behavior rather than self-report
Safety
Reliability
Inexpensive
Good for longitudinal data
Weaknesses and disadvantages
No control
Often don’t know anything about the subjects
Sample may not be representative
Secondary information may have bias
Need triangulation – looking at material from several
different perspectives gives a more accurate view of it.
5. Types of nonreactive research
Some field experiments could be termed
nonreactive
Naturalistic observation
Content analysis – quantitative or qualitative
Archival research
Written and audio/visual records
Secondary analysis
6. Content analysis
A technique used to study written material by
breaking it into meaningful units, using
carefully applied rules.
Use objective and systematic coding to
produce a quantitative description of the
observed material.
Can analyze common myths
Can also be used in a qualitative way
Employ semiotic techniques
7. Example: Erving Goffman’s Gender
Advertisements (1979, 1988)
Goffman combined content and
semiotic analysis to look at how
gender was (and still is!)
portrayed in advertising. In his
analysis, Goffman examined a
selection of advertising images
and found that that women are
consistently shown in
subordinated positions compared
to men in a variety of social
situations. He also concluded that
advertising both reflects and
helps shape our concept of what
it means to be masculine or
feminine in our culture.
8. Erving Goffman’s Gender
Advertisements
Goffman asked the question: How is gender
represented in advertising?
His underlying premise is that ads are taken-
for-granted pictures or displays of codified
(culturally accepted) gender behaviour – the
ads display ritualized behaviours.
9. Goffman (cont.)
If we explore these codes, we can learn what it is to
be “male” or “female” in our culture.
Goffman believed that these codes originated in
how families are structured in our society; based on
the dominant – subordinate relationship between
parent and child.
Essentially, men treat women as they would treat
subordinate males – in turn both are treated as
“children”, which repeats the dominant parent –
subordinate child relationship within the family.
10. Goffman (cont.)
Note re: Goffman’s research….
Goffman showed that a fairly simple, but very
cost-effective methodology like content
analysis can illuminate an important theory
about gender and the social world.
Most theorists (ie. Leiss Kline Jhally, Waters
and Ellis) believe that Goffman’s findings and
the categories that he uses for his study are
equally relevant today.
15. Content Analysis
What can be studied
Any written material
Audio/visual information
Useful for 3 types of research
Problems involving a large volume of text
Research from afar or in the past
Revealing themes difficult to see with casual
observation.
16. Steps in content analysis
1. Define problem / identify the issue to be
studied
2. Select the media that will be used
3. Derive coding categories
4. Sampling strategy – which sources will you
use?
5. Train the coders if using
6. Code material by hand or with software
7. Analyze the data
17. Human vs. computer coders
Can often utilize computers
Internet searches
Automated text search
Great for extremely large sets of data
Personal judgment not part of the process
Cheaper and faster than humans
Humans
Useful for coding complex concepts
More flexibility
Costs more time and money
18. Coding in a content analysis
What gets counted?
What is important for understanding themes?
Structured observation – systematic observation
based on careful rules
Coding systems
Before you decide specifically on coding categories, you
must specify what you are going to measure
A set of rules on how to systematically observe and record
content from text or images.
What is the unit of analysis?
One word
One paragraph
One theme
One image
19. Characteristics of text content
1. Frequency
2. Direction
3. Intensity
4. Space
Other things that could be counted:
Characters
Specific individuals
Can also consider semantics – the meaning of the text
Requires interpretation
Must make judgment calls
Or concepts
Crime, mental illness
Themes
20. Manifest and Latent Content
Manifest
Overt or visible material – can count
Latent
Symbolic content uncovered by semantic analysis – needs
to be coded first (inductive process) and then counted
Can use both deductive and inductive approaches
to find categories (codes) for content analysis
Divide sample in sections
Use grounded theory on a smaller portion to develop
categories
Use those categories on the rest of the sample.
21. Deductive and Inductive Category
Formation
Deductive
Reasoning from the general to the specific
Forming categories to score based on theoretical
ideas.
Inductive category formation
Reason from the specific to the general
Come up with categories from data
Can obtain categories by using grounded theory
22. Grounded theory
Theories are empirically grounded into the data.
Data collection and analysis are combined.
Cycle – observe data, modify theory, observe data based on
theory
3 stages of analysis in grounded theory
1. Open coding: Find conceptual categories in the data
2. Axial coding: Look at relationship between the categories
3. Selective coding: To account for relationships, find core
categories.
In grounded theory, meaning derived from the data
For content analysis, grounded theory can help find
the appropriate codes to use.
Quantitative analysis after that.
23. Sampling Strategy In Content
Analysis
Which sources will be used?
Depends on purpose of study, theory, etc.
Which dates will be used?
What will be analyzed?
All of article, every 2 pages, etc.
Representative sample is important
Can use various sampling procedures to obtain
Random sampling
Stratified sampling
Purposive sampling – picking a sample for a particular
reason.
24. Data Analysis in Content
Analysis
Quantitative:
Largely depends on procedure
Correlation analysis
Percentages
Inferential analysis
Qualitative
Use semiotic analysis (developed in humanities)
25. Analysis of Existing Statistics and
Secondary Analysis of Survey Data
Also nonreactive
Many sources of statistical data available
Government statistics (i.e. Stats Canada, Canadian
Census Data)
International agencies (i.e. World Health
Organization, the UN)
Also many private sources
Secondary analysis can be done when obtain “raw
data” and do statistical analysis for your own
research question
Raw census data available to academic institutions
26. 2006 and 2011 Canadian Census
2006 Census
http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/release/index.cfm
Population and dwelling counts
Age and sex
Marital status, families and households, housing
Language, mobility and migration, immigration and citizenship
Aboriginal peoples
Labour, place of work and commuting to work, education and
language
Ethnic origin and visible minorities
Income and earnings and shelter costs
2011 Census
http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/index-eng.cfm