ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING - BOOK

ASSESSMENT
FOR LEARNING
(As per the new two year B.Ed.
Curriculum)
PRASANTH VENPAKAL
M.Com., M.Ed. , NET
Venpakal, Neyyattinkara,
Thiruvananthapuram, 695123
Prasanthsr.sr783@gmail.com

PREFACE
The course is designed keeping in mind the
critical role of assessment in enhancing learning. In
contrast to the traditional notion of assessment as an
act to be performed at the end of teaching, using a
paper-pencil test, the course situates assessment
within a constructivist paradigm. The course
critiques the traditional purpose of assessment as a
mechanism to filter learners as per their abilities or
potentials and thus reducing learning to a limited set
of ‘expertise’ that can be displayed on paper;
assessment as a selective and competitive act and
achievement as an outcome of individual’s innate
factors.
With the constructivist understanding of
learning and assessment, assessment cannot be an
end-of-teaching activity. Rather, it has to be an
ongoing process where the teacher closely observes
learners during the process of teaching-learning,
records learning landmarks, and supports them by
providing relevant feedback. The need for giving
feedback to students and their guardians will be
highlighted, with practical experience of how to
record and report progress, and create forums for
engagement with the community. Student-teachers
will thus learn to explore diverse methods and tools
of assessing an array of learning/performance
outcomes of diverse learners. The course discusses
the relationship of assessment with self-esteem,
motivation, and identity as learners , with an

emphasis on ‘fixed’ or ‘growth’ mindsets
regarding notions of intelligence and ability.
The course will support student-teachers in
understanding the psycho-social and political
dimensions of assessment. They will see how
traditional assessment used for competitive
selection has provided legitimacy to iniquitous
systems of education and worked towards
perpetuating equations of power and hegemony in
society. The aim of this course is therefore to
develop a critical understanding of issues in
assessment and also explore realistic,
comprehensive and dynamic assessment processes
which are culturally responsive for use in the
classroom. This is one of the greatest challenges
before the Indian system and this course will
prepare prospective teachers to critically look at the
prevalent practices of assessment and selection, and
instead develop enabling processes which lead to
better learning and more confident and creative
learners.
PRASANTH VENPAKAL

CONTENTS
Unit I. Basics of Assessment
i) Meaning, Related terms- measurement,
evaluation, examination
ii) Role of Assessment in Learning- as learning, for
learning, of learning
iii) Formative and Summative assessment
iv) Purposes of Assessment
v) Principles of Assessment Practices –principles
related to selection of methods for assessment,
collection of assessment information, judging and
scoring of student performance, summarization and
interpretation of results, reporting of assessment
findings
Unit II. Assessment for Learning in Classroom
i) Student evaluation in transmission-reception
(behaviorist) model of education drawbacks
ii) Changing assessment practices- assessment in
constructivist approach-Continuous and
Comprehensive evaluation- projects, seminars,
assignments, portfolios; Grading
iii)Types of assessment- practice based, evidence
based, performance based, examination based
iv)Practices of assessment- dialogue, feedback
through marking, peer and self-assessment,
formative use of summative tests
Unit III. Tools & techniques for classroom
assessment
i) Tools & techniques for classroom assessment-
observation, Self- reporting, Testing; anecdotal
records, check lists, rating scale, Test- types of tests.

ii) Rubrics- meaning, importance
iii)Assessment Tools for affective domain- Attitude
scales, motivation scales-interest inventory
iv)Types of test items-principles for constructing
each type of item
Unit IV. Issues in classroom assessment
i) Major issues- Commercialisation of assessment,
poor test quality, domain dependency, measurement
issues, system issues
ii) Reforms in assessment-open book, IBA, on line,
on demand
iii)Examination reform reports
Unit V. Assessment in inclusive practices
i) Differentiated assessment- culturally responsive
assessment
ii) Use of tests for learner appraisal-achievement
test, Diagnostic test- construction of each-
preparation of test items- scoring key- marking
scheme-question wise analysis
iii)Quality of a good test
iv)Ensuring fairness in assessment
v) Assessment for enhancing confidence in
learning- Relationship of assessment with
confidence, self-esteem, motivation-ipsative
assessment
Unit VI. Reporting Quantitative assessment data
Statistical techniques for interpreting and reporting
quantitative data
i)Measures of central tendency
ii)Measures of dispersion
iii)Correlation

iv) Graphs & Diagrams
UNIT- I.
BASICS OF ASSESSMENT
MEANING OF RELATED TERMS-
ASSESSMENT, MEASUREMENT,
EVALUATION & EXAMINATION

ASSESSMENT
“Assessment is the systematic collection,
review, and use of information about educational
programs undertaken for the purpose of improving
student learning and development”.
T. Marchese (1987)
Educational assessment is the process of
documenting, usually in measurable terms,
knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. Assessment
can focus on the individual learner, the learning
community (class, workshop, or other organized
group of learners), the institution, or the educational
system as a whole. According to the Academic
Exchange Quarterly: "Studies of a theoretical or
empirical nature (including case studies, portfolio
studies, exploratory, or experimental work)
addressing the assessment of learner aptitude and
preparation, motivation and learning styles,
learning outcomes in achievement and satisfaction
in different educational contexts are all welcome, as
are studies addressing issues of measurable
standards and benchmarks".
Assessment is a process by which
information is obtained relative to some known
objective or goal. Assessment is a broad term that
includes testing. A test is a special form of
assessment. Tests are assessments made under
contrived circumstances especially so that they may
be administered. In other words, all tests are
assessments, but not all assessments are tests. We
test at the end of a lesson or unit. We assess progress

at the end of a school year through testing, and we
assess verbal and quantitative skills through such
instruments as the SAT and GRE. Whether implicit
or explicit, assessment is most usefully connected to
some goal or objective for which the assessment is
designed. A test or assessment yields information
relative to an objective or goal. In that sense, we test
or assess to determine whether or not an objective
or goal has been obtained. Assessment of skill
attainment is rather straightforward. Either the skill
exists at some acceptable level or it doesn’t. Skills
are readily demonstrable. Assessment of
understanding is much more difficult and complex.
Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot. We
can assess a person’s knowledge in a variety of
ways, but there is always a leap, an inference that
we make about what a person does in relation to
what it signifies about what he knows. In the section
on this site on behavioral verbs, to assess means To
stipulate the conditions by which the behavior
specified in an objective may be ascertained. Such
stipulations are usually in the form of written
descriptions.
Assessment Steps:
 Develop learning objectives.
 Check for alignment between the curriculum
and the objectives.
 Develop an assessment plan (must use direct
measures).

 Collect assessment data.
 Use results to improve the program.
 Routinely examine the assessment process
and correct, as needed.
Evaluation
Evaluation is the process by which we judge
the quality of a something. It is the processes of
determining the extent to which an objective is
achieved or the thing evaluated possess the qualities
envisaged. Evaluation is a process of assigning
value to something. This is possible only on the
basis of specific pre-determined goals. Therefore
evaluation in education warrants the determination
of specific educational goals. From the point of
view of the class room teacher instructional
objectives act as the basis of evaluation .This means
that educational evaluation is possible only if the
instructional objectives are determiner earlier .
Evaluation based on pre-determined objectives is
called objective based evaluation.
Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and
least understood of the terms. Inherent in the idea of
evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what we
are doing is engaging in some process that is
designed to provide information that will help us
make a judgment about a given situation. Generally,
any evaluation process requires information about
the situation in question. A situation is an umbrella
term that takes into account such ideas as
objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on.
When we evaluate, we are saying that the process

will yield information regarding the worthiness,
appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of
something for which a reliable measurement or
assessment has been made. Teachers, in particular,
are constantly evaluating students, and such
evaluations are usually done in the context of
comparisons between what was intended (learning,
progress, behavior) and what was obtained.
Functions of Evaluation
 Evaluation enhance the quality of teaching .
Through evaluation , teachers are able to find out
how far they have been successful ion achieving the
objectives of education they had in the mind. In
other word they are able to find or assess the degree
to which they have succeeded in teaching . this
assessment leading to value judgment enable
instructional strategies.
 Guidance can be given on the basis of
evaluation
Evaluation makes the individual difference clear
, specific difficulties also will be identified and
diagnosed . on the basis of this diagnosis , the
teacher can plan remedial activities within turn
help the realization of the goals to the maximum
possible . Hence it is greate utility in educational
guidance . on the basis of the measurement of
abilities prediction can be regarding the nature of
performance of individual s in a context or task .

This will enable the teacher to provide educational
and vocational guidance.
 Evaluation help in adjudging the position of
students within a group.
One of the important function served by
evaluation is ‘placement’ of students . The under
going a course have to be judged on the basis of
their eligibility to proceed to higher stage of study
measurement can be ascertained at any moment
without reference to the past or future. In evaluation
we consider the previous results and certain goals,
or objectives anticipated. While measurement aims
only ascertaining quantity evaluation aims only
ascertaining quantity evaluation aims at the
weakness if any discovered .Here we are always
concern whether we are reaching the goal . Because
of this nature of evaluation .It is a continuous
process while measurement is attempt only when it
is needed .As evaluation involved value judgment.
It may not be peruse as measurement, but ,it is more
valid and useful than measurement . However,
proper measurement can make evaluation more
objective.
Steps in The Process of Evaluation
An effective process of evaluation involves
the following steps;
i. Setting up of objectives of education
according to the needs of learner.

ii. Writing the instructional objectives in
behavior terms.
iii. Imparting learning experience / engaging
learners with the learning environment.
iv. Developing tools and techniques of
evaluation in accordance with the
instructional objectives.
v. Implementing the tools and find out the
results.
vi. Analysis and interpretation of results.
vii. Modifying with remedial teaching, if there is
any deviations.
viii. Recording for future use.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ASSESSMENT &
EVALUATION
Assessment Evaluation
Emphasis on the
teaching process and
progress
Emphasis on the
mastery of
competencies
Focus on the Teacher
Activity or Student
Activity
Focus on Student
Performance or Teacher
Performance
Methods include:
Student Critiques,
Focus Groups,
Interviews, Reflective
Practice, Surveys and
Reviews
Methods include:
Test/Quizzes, Semester
Projects,
Demonstrations or
Performances

Purpose is to improve
the teaching and
learning process
Purpose is to assign a
grade or ranking
Generally Formative Generally Summative
MEASUREMENT
According to Stevens “ Measurement is the
assignment of numerals to objects , or events,
according to rules”
According to Stuffebeam “ Measurement as
the assignment of numerals to entities according to
rules”
Measurement is the process by which we
ascertain the quantity of something. It is merely the
assignment of a numerical index to the thing or
phenomenon we measure. Measurement refers to
the process by which the attributes or dimensions of
some physical object are determined. One exception
seems to be in the use of the word measure in
determining the IQ of a person. The phrase, "this
test measures IQ" is commonly used. Measuring
such things as attitudes or preferences also applies.
However, when we measure, we generally use some
standard instrument to determine how big, tall,
heavy, voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or straight
something actually is. Standard instruments refer to
instruments such as rulers, scales, thermometers,
pressure gauges, etc. We measure to obtain
information about what is. Such information may or

may not be useful, depending on the accuracy of the
instruments we use, and our skill at using them.
A Comparison Of Measurement And
Evaluation
Measurement Evaluation
1. Measurement is
quantitative it
refers to ‘How
Much’ without any
reference to
purpose past ,or
future. It is
concerned only
with the present.
2. Measurement is
objective and
impersonal. It does
not change with
change of
individuals.
3. Measurement is
precise and
scientific.
4. Measurement is
not a continuous
process, it is
occasional. Tests
are conducted only
occasionally to get
a measure of pupils
achievement.
Evaluation is
qualitative judgment
of value and
purposes. It refers to
‘how good’ with
reference to purposes
present, past or
future.
Evaluation is
subjective and
personal to a great
extent.
Evaluation is
interpretative and
philosophical.
Evaluation is a
continuous process.
Teachers are
evaluating their
pupils continuously.
In addition to tests,
observation,
interview,
sociometry,etc are

5. Measurement is
independent of
evaluation.
6. Scope of
measurement is
limited
the common
techniques used for
the purpose correct
evaluation depends
upon correct
measurement.
Correct evaluation
depends up on correct
measurement.
Scope of evaluation is
unlimited.
TEST / EXAMINATION
A test or an examination (or "exam") is an
assessment intended to measure a test-taker's
knowledge, skill, aptitude, or classification in many
other topics (e.g., beliefs). In practice, a test may be
administered orally, on paper, on a computer, or in
a confined area that requires a test taker to
physically perform a set of skills. The basic
component of a test is an item, which is sometimes
colloquially referred to as a "question."
Nevertheless, not every item is phrased as a
question given that an item may be phrased as a
true/false statement or as a task that must be
performed (in a performance test). In many formal
standardized tests, a test item is often retrievable
from an item bank.
A test may vary in rigor and requirement. For
example, in a closed book test, a test taker is often
required to rely upon memory to respond to specific
items whereas in an open book test, a test taker may

use one or more supplementary tools such as a
reference book or calculator when responding to an
item. A test may be administered formally or
informally. An example of an informal test would
be a reading test administered by a parent to a child.
An example of a formal test would be a final
examination administered by a teacher in a
classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a
psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results
in a grade or a test score. A test score may be
interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or
occasionally both. The norm may be established
independently, or by statistical analysis of a large
number of participants. A formal test that is
standardized one that is administered and scored in
a consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility.
ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING- AS
LEARNING, FOR LEARNING, OF
LEARNING
Assessment For Learning
It involves teachers uses information about
student’s knowledge, understanding and skills to
inform their teaching. It occurs throughout the
teaching learning process to clarify student’s
learning and understanding. It includes two
phases—initial or diagnostic assessment and
formative assessment. This type of assessment can
be based on a variety of information sources (e.g.,
portfolios, works in progress, teacher observation,
conversation) .Verbal or written feedback given to
the student after this assessment is primarily

descriptive and emphasizes strengths, identifies
challenges, and points to next steps. Through this
assessment teachers check on understanding they
adjust their instruction to keep students on track. No
grades or scores are given - record-keeping is
primarily anecdotal and descriptive. It occurs
throughout the learning process, from the outset of
the course of study to the time of summative
assessment
Assessment As Learning
It occurs when students act as their own
assessors. Students monitor their own learning , ask
questions and use a range of strategies to decide
what they know and can do for learning. It begins
as students become aware of the goals of instruction
and the criteria for performance. It encourages to
take responsibility for their own learning. It
involves goal-setting, monitoring progress, and
reflecting on results It implies student ownership
and responsibility for moving his or her thinking
forward (metacognition). It occurs throughout the
learning process
Assessment Of Learning
It assists teachers in using evidence of students
learning to assess achievements against outcomes
and standards. Sometimes it is known as summative
assessment. This assessment helps for assigning
grades & ranks. It compares one student’s
achievement with standards The results can be
communicated to the student and parents .It occurs
at the end of the learning unit.

FORMATIVE & SUMMATTIVE
ASSESSMENT
Formative Assessment
The goal of formative assessment is to
monitor student learning to provide ongoing
feedback that can be used by instructors to improve
their teaching and by students to improve their
learning. Formative assessment provides feedback
and information during the instructional process,
while learning is taking place, and while learning is
occurring. Formative assessment measures student
progress but it can also assess your own progress as
an instructor. A primary focus of formative
assessment is to identify areas that may need
improvement. These assessments typically are not
graded and act as a gauge to students’ learning
progress and to determine teaching effectiveness.
Features of Formative Assessment
 Is diagnostic and remedial
 Makes the provision for effective feedback
 Provides the platform for the active
involvement of students in their own
learning.
 Enables teachers to adjust teaching to take
account of the results of assessment
 Recognizes the profound influence
assessment has on the motivation and self-
esteem of students, both of which are crucial
influences on learning

 Recognizes the need for students to be able to
assess themselves and understand how to
improve
 Builds on students' prior knowledge and
experience in designing what is taught.
 Incorporates varied learning styles into
deciding how and what to teach.
 Encourages students to understand the
criteria that will be used to judge their work
 Offers an opportunity to students to improve
their work after feedback,
 Helps students to support their peers, and
expect to be supported by them.
Types of Formative Assessment
 Observations during in-class activities; of
students non-verbal feedback during lecture
 Homework exercises as review for exams and
class discussions)
 Reflections journals that are reviewed
periodically during the semester
 Question and answer sessions, both formal—
planned and informal—spontaneous
 Conferences between the instructor and student
at various points in the semester
 In-class activities where students informally
present their results
 Student feedback collected by periodically
answering specific question about the instruction
and their self-evaluation of performance and
progress

Summative Assessment
The goal of summative assessment is to
evaluate student learning at the end of an
instructional unit by comparing it against some
standard or benchmark. Summative assessment
takes place after the learning has been completed
and provides information and feedback that sums up
the teaching and learning process. Typically, no
more formal learning is taking place at this stage,
other than incidental learning which might take
place through the completion of projects and
assignments. Grades are usually an outcome of
summative assessment. Summative assessment is
more product-oriented and assesses the final
product, whereas formative assessment focuses on
the process toward completing the product.
Types of Summative Assessment
 Examinations (major, high-stakes exams)
 Final examination (a truly summative
assessment)
 Term papers (drafts submitted throughout the
semester would be a formative assessment)
 Projects (project phases submitted at various
completion points could be formatively
assessed)
 Portfolios (could also be assessed during it’s
development as a formative assessment)
 Performances

 Student evaluation of the course (teaching
effectiveness)
 Instructor self-evaluation
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUMMATIVE &
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Summative
Assessment
Formative Assessment
For grades Enhance learning
Usually occurs at
critical points in the
learning process (e.g.
mid-term; final exam)
Considered a part of the
course instruction
Evaluated with a score Evaluated by providing
feedback
Once an evaluation is
complete, it is added
to the students record;
typically no
opportunity for change
Activities tend to build
upon the learning
process (i.e. tasks will
flow into each other so
learning becomes more
of a process)
Can be viewed as
"threatening" as the
end result is more
definitive
Tends to be viewed as a
non-threatening
approach
PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT
The primary purpose of assessment is to
improve students' learning and teachers' teaching as

both respond to the information it
provides. Assessment for learning is an ongoing
process that arises out of the interaction between
teaching and learning.
 Assessment drives instruction
A pre-test or needs assessment informs
instructors what students know and do not know at
the outset, setting the direction of a course. If done
well, the information garnered will highlight the gap
between existing knowledge and a desired
outcome. Accomplished instructors find out what
students already know, and use the prior knowledge
as a stepping off place to develop new
understanding. The same is true for data obtained
through assessment done during instruction. By
checking in with students throughout instruction,
outstanding instructors constantly revise and refine
their teaching to meet the diverse needs of students.
 Assessment drives learning
What and how students learn depends to a major
extent on how they think they will be
assessed. Assessment practices must send the right
signals to students about what to study, how to
study, and the relative time to spend on concepts
and skills in a course. Accomplished faculty

communicate clearly what students need to know
and be able to do, both through a clearly articulated
syllabus, and by choosing assessments carefully in
order to direct student energies. High expectations
for learning result in students who rise to the
occasion.
 Assessment informs students of their progress
Effective assessment provides students with a
sense of what they know and don’t know about a
subject. If done well, the feedback provided to
students will indicate to them how to improve their
performance. Assessments must clearly match the
content, the nature of thinking, and the skills taught
in a class. Through feedback from instructors,
students become aware of their strengths and
challenges with respect to course learning
outcomes. Assessment done well should not be a
surprise to students.
 Assessment informs teaching practice
Reflection on student accomplishments offers
instructors insights on the effectiveness of their
teaching strategies. By systematically gathering,
analyzing, and interpreting evidence we can
determine how well student learning matches our
outcomes / expectations for a lesson, unit or

course. The knowledge from feedback indicates to
the instructor how to improve instruction, where to
strengthen teaching, and what areas are well
understood and therefore may be cut back in future
courses.
 Assessment for Grading
Grades should be a reflection of what a student
has learned as defined in the student learning
outcomes. They should be based on direct evidence
of student learning as measured on tests, papers,
projects, and presentations, etc. Grades often fail to
tell us clearly about “large learning” such as critical
thinking skills, problem solving abilities,
communication skills (oral, written and listening),
social skills, and emotional management skills.
 Assessment motivate students
Studies has shown that students will be
motivated and confident learners when they
experience progress and achievement, rather than
the failure and defeat associated with being
compared to more successful peers.
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
1. Group assessment : This develops interpersonal
skills and may also develop oral skills and

research skills (if combined, for example, with a
project).
2. Self-assessment : Self-assessment obliges
students more actively and formally to evaluate
themselves and may develop self-awareness and
better understanding of learning outcomes.
3. Peer assessment : By overseeing and evaluating
other students’ work, the process of peer
assessment develops heightened awareness of
what is expected of students in their learning.
4. Unseen examination : This is the ‘traditional’
approach. It tests the individual knowledge base
but questions are often relatively predictable
and, in assessment, it is difficult to distinguish
between surface learning and deep learning.
5. Testing skills : It can be useful to test students on
questions relating to material with instead of
which they have no familiarity. This often
involves creating hypothetical knowledge
scenarios. It can test true student ability and
avoids problems of rote- and surface-learning.
6. Coursework essays : A relatively traditional
approach that allows students to explore a topic
in greater depth but can be open to plagiarism.
Also, it can be fairly time consuming and may
detract from other areas of the module.
7. Oral examination : With an oral exam, it is
possible to ascertain students’ knowledge and
skills. It obliges a much deeper and extensive
learning experience, and develops oral and
presentational skills.

8. Projects : These may develop a wide range of
expertise, including research, IT and
organisational skills. Marking can be difficult,
so one should consider oral presentation.
9. Presentations : These test and develop important
oral communication and IT skills, but can prove
to be dull and unpopular with students who do
not want to listen to their peers, but want instead
to be taught by the tutor.
10.Multiple choice :These are useful for self-
assessment and easy to mark. Difficulties lie in
designing questions and testing depth of
analytical understanding.
11.Portfolio: This contains great potential for
developing and demonstrating transferable skills
as an ongoing process throughout the degree
programme.
12.Computer-aided : Computers are usually used
with multiple-choice questions. Creating
questions is time consuming, but marking is very
fast and accurate. The challenge is to test the
depth of learning.
13.Literature reviews : These are popular at later
levels of degree programmes, allowing students
to explore a particular topic in considerable
depth. They can also develop a wide range of
useful study and research skills.
PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT
Good principles will help those wishing to
evaluate their assessment designs or their
implementations in practice. Following are the

important principles that might kept in mind while
assessing performance of learners .
1. It should be clear and has direct link with
outcomes :
The assessment strategies employed by the
teacher in the classroom need to be directly linked
to and reflect the syllabus outcomes. The methods
of assessment should be planned in a very clear
manner.
2. It should integrate to teaching and learning :
Effective assessment practices involves
selecting strategies that are directly derived from
well structured teaching and learning activities.
These strategies should provide information
concerning student progress and achievement that
helps to inform ongoing teaching and learning as
well as the diagnosis of areas of strength and need.
3. It should be comprehensive and balanced :
Effective assessment program should give
result of performance in all areas may be in
scholastic as well as co-scholastic. Teacher should
take care a balanced adoption of assessment
strategies.
4. Strategies adopted should be valid and
reliable :
Valid and reliable assessment strategies are
those that give results that what the teacher actually
assess not only in a particular situation but also in
other situations.
5. It should be fair :

Effective assessment strategies are designed
to ensure equal opportunity for success regardless
of students’ age, gender, physical or other disability,
culture, background language, socio economic
status, etc.
6. It should be student centered :
The learning outcomes and the assessment
process to be used should be made explicit to
students. Students should participate in the
negotiation of learning task and actively monitor
and reflect up on their achievement and progress.
7. It should be time efficient and manageable :
Teachers need to plan carefully the timing
frequencies and nature of their assessment
strategies. Good planning ensures that assessment
and reporting is manageable and maximizes the
usefulness of the strategies selected.
8. It should enable to recognize individual
achievement and progress :
All students must be given appropriate
opportunities to demonstrate achievement. For
giving constructive feedback to the students the
assessment strategies should enable to evaluate
learners individually.
9. It must ensure active involvement of Parents:
School authorities should ensure full and
informed participation by parents in the continuing
development and review of the school policy on
assessment process.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Define the term Assessment.
2. What you mean by Evaluation?
3. Differentiate the terms Assessment and
Evaluation.
4. Define the term Measurement.
5. Differentiate Measurement and Evaluation.
6. Differentiate Examination and Assessment.
7.Differentiate Formative & Summative
Assessment.
8.Explain the advantages of formative assessment.
9. List out the purposes of Assessment.
10. Explain the different principles applied while
assessing learners.
11. Explain the importance of assessment in our
education system.
12. How will you conduct summative & formative
assessment ?
UNIT - II
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING IN
CLASSROOM
Learning is a relatively permanent change in,
or acquisition of knowledge, understanding or
behavior. There are three ways of learning, they’re
Transmission, Reception and Construction.
Student Evaluation in Transmission Reception (
Behaviorist ) Model of Education
Reception is model of learning where there is
transmission of knowledge from the external source
(for example, teacher) to the receiver (students). So,
learning here is being taught. The teacher gives

students the concept and knowledge while students
are only receiving it purely.
Transmission is Sending & Receiving
messages, knowledge, signals. Which includes no
scope for creativity, Rigidity and Generally method
of teaching is Lecture Method.
Behaviorism Theory of Learning “ Teachers
must learn how to teach … they need only to be
taught more effective ways of teaching.” -B. F.
Skinner By: Brittaney
Behaviorism assumes that a learner is
essentially passive, responding to environmental
stimuli. It Believes that When born our mind is
‘tabula rasa’ (a blank slate) , and behavior is shaped
by positive and negative reinforcement.
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with
observable behavior, as opposed to internal events
like thinking and emotion. Observable (i.e.
external) behavior can be objectively and
scientifically measured. Internal events, such as
thinking should be explained through behavioral
terms (or eliminated altogether).
Assessment in Behaviorist Model of Education
Here the importance is to assess how much
students where receiving the information
transmitted by the teacher. Knowledge transmission
cannot be evaluated. But indirect methods can be
used to assess attention or emotional states. Here
teacher can assess only the success of teaching
process. In this more weightage is given to
knowledge level and understanding level of

attainment of objectives. Traditional bloom’s
taxonomy is the base for assessment. In this
assessment is summative in nature.
Drawbacks of Assessment in Behaviorist Model
of Education
 Assessment is only about the success of
teaching process.
 Students are passive listeners so proper
assessment of achievement is not possible.
 Less importance to psychological aspects of
learner.
 More importance to the product achieved by
the students.
 No weightage to the mental process of
learners.
 No continues assessment of the learner.
 Less importance to co-scholastic
achievements.
Student Evaluation in Constructivist Model of
Education
Formalization of the theory of constructivism
is generally attributed to jean piaget, who
articulated mechanisms by which knowledge is
internalized by learners. He suggested that through
processes of accommodation and assimilation,
individuals construct new knowledge from their
experiences. “ Teaching is not about filling up the
pail, it is about lighting a fire” Constructivism:
focuses on knowledge construction .It is a theory of
knowledge that argues that humans generate

knowledge and meaning from an interaction
between their experiences and their ideas.
Constructivism is a theory of knowledge that
argues that humans generate knowledge and
meaning from an interaction between their
experiences and their ideas. It has influenced a
number of disciplines, including psychology,
sociology, education and the history of science.
When individuals assimilate, they
incorporate the new experience into an already
existing framework without changing that
framework. This may occur when individuals’
experiences are aligned with their internal
representations of the world, but may also occur as
a failure to change a faulty understanding; for
example, they may not notice events, may
misunderstand input from others, or may decide that
an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as
information about the world. In contrast, when
individuals’ experiences contradict their internal
representations, they may change their perceptions
of the experiences to fit their internal
representations.
According to the theory, accommodation is
the process of reframing one’s mental
representation of the external world to fit new
experiences. Accommodation can be understood as
the mechanism by which failure leads to learning:
when we act on the expectation that the world
operates in one way and it violates our expectations,
we often fail, but by accommodating this new

experience and reframing our model of the way the
world works, we learn from the experience of
failure, or others’ failure.
It is important to note that constructivism is
not a particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism is
a theory describing how learning happens,
regardless of whether learners are using their
experiences to understand a lecture or following the
instructions for building a model airplane. In both
cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that
learners construct knowledge out of their
experiences.
Assessment in Constructivist Model of
Education
Constructivism is often associated with
pedagogic approaches that promote active learning
, or learning by doing. The view of the learner
changed from that of a recipient of knowledge to
that of a constructor of knowledge, an autonomous
learner with metacognitive skills for controlling his
or her cognitive process during learning. Learning
involves selecting relevant information and
interpreting it through one’s existing knowledge.
Accordingly, the teacher becomes a participant with
the learner in the process of shared cognition, that
is, in the process of constructing meaning in a given
situation. Concerning instruction, the focus changed
from the curriculum to the cognition of the student.
Thus, instruction is geared toward helping the
student to develop learning and thinking strategies
that are appropriate for working within various

subject domains. Correspondingly, assessment is
qualitative rather than quantitative, determining
how the student structures and process knowledge
rather than how much is learned. Continuous and
comprehensive assessment is one of the main
strategy in constructivist learning. In this
assessment is formative rather than summative.
Weightage to learning objectives in the assessment
is given based on the revised blooms taxonomy.
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
(CCE)
Continuous and comprehensive evaluation is
a process of assessment, mandated by the Right to
Education Act, of India. This approach to
assessment has been introduced by state
governments in India, as well as by the Central
Board of Secondary Education in India. The main
aim of CCE is to evaluate every aspect of the child
during their presence at the school. This is believed
to help reduce the pressure on the child
during/before examinations as the student will have
to sit for multiple tests throughout the year, of which
no test or the syllabus covered will be repeated at
the end of the year, whatsoever. The CCE method
is claimed to bring enormous changes from the
traditional chalk and talk method of teaching,
provided it is implemented accurately.
As a part of this new system, student's marks
will be replaced by grades which will be evaluated
through a series of curricular and extra-curricular
evaluations along with academics. The aim is to

decrease the workload on the student by means of
continuous evaluation by taking number of small
tests throughout the year in place of single test at the
end of the academic program. Only Grades are
awarded to students based on work experience
skills, dexterity, innovation, steadiness, teamwork,
public speaking, behavior, etc. to evaluate and
present an overall measure of the student's ability.
This helps the students who are not good in
academics to show their talent in other fields such
as arts, humanities, sports, music, athletics, and also
helps to motivate the students who have a thirst of
knowledge.
Objectives of CCE
1. To help for developing cognitive , psychomotor
and affective skills.
2. To give emphasis on thought process and de-
emphasis on memorization.
3. To make evaluation an integral part of teaching
learning process.
4. To use evaluation for improvement of student’s
achievement and teaching strategies.
5. To use evaluation as a quality control device to
increase standard of performance.
6. To make the teaching learning process a student
centered one.
Characteristics of CCE

 Teachers evaluate students in day-to-day
basis and use the feedback for improvement
in teaching – learning process.
 Teachers can use varieties of evaluation
methods over and above the written tests.
 Students can be assessed in both scholastic
and co-scholastic areas.
 Evaluation is done throughout the year and
therefore it is expected to provide more
reliable evidence of students’ progress.
 CCE encourages the students in forming
good study habits.
 The feedback provided by CCE can be
effectively used in remedial teaching to slow
learners.
Advantages of Continuous and Comprehensive
Evaluation (CCE)
CCE is child-centric and views each learner
as unique. This evaluation system aims to build on
the individual child’s abilities, progress and
development. That the child should not feel
burdened during the learning years, CCE made
formative and summative assessments mandatory in
all CBSE schools. The learner thus was also
benefitted by having to focus on only a small part of
the entire syllabus designed for an academic year.
Assessment of Projects
Assessment plays a major role in education.
A key role of assessment is the diagnostic process—
by establishing what students have learned, it is

possible to plan what students need to learn in the
future. Project work is a method of allowing
students to use what they have learned in statistics
classes in a practical context. It is this practical
application of projects that make them such a useful
part of the learning process.
Although project work may look easy, a brief
introduction with this way of working will show
how demanding it really is for both teachers and
students. Students must make connections between
one piece of learning with another. They have to
transfer the skills acquired in statistics to other areas
such as science and geography, and vice-versa.
They have to familiarise themselves with a wide
range of information. This is much more demanding
than learning one isolated fact after another.
Integrated work of this kind is often the best
preparation for higher education and future
employment. Project work allows students to
connect various pieces of knowledge together that
suits a solution to a chosen problem. Through the
following steps we can assess the project work of
students.
Criterias for Assessing Projects
Assessing the effort put by a learner in the
conduction of project based learning is not an easy
task. We can use the following basic criterias for
assessing their output;
I. Research skills: it includes the assessment of
their involvement in following elements ;
Selection of topic

Framing objectives and hypotheses
Preparation of tools and techniques
Implementation of study and data collection
Analysis of collected Data and its interpretation
Participation in discussion
Creativity (thinks of new/next experiments/new
ideas)
Initiative
Interest in his/her work
Critical thinking
Professional conduct
Communication/sociability/time
management/teamwork
II. Written report
Process of writing
Appropriateness of language
Language: spelling, grammar, not unnecessarily
lengthy
Response to suggestions
Report defence during evaluation
Initiative/independence
Theoretical background
Presentation of results: clarity of tables, figures
Depth and critical analysis
Structure and line of reasoning
Foundation of conclusions
Use of references
Time management/lay out/completeness
III. Oral presentation
i. Composition and design

The content of the presentation should meet the
requirements of the written report
Clarity of slides
Order of components
ii. Professional attitude
Response to questions and remarks
iii. Presentation technique
Use of language
Use of slides
Use of voice
ASSESSING OF SEMINAR
Seminar in class room is a socialized way of
expression of contents. It is defined as the sessions
that provide the opportunity for students to engage
in discussion of a particular topic . It helps to
explore the content in more detail that might be
covered in classrooms. It may be implemented in
class rooms on a small size basis or at large level.
The following points must be remembered while
assessing the seminar of students;
1) When assessing written work consider the
following points:
 Depth of understanding of basic concepts and
issues
 Relevance to the assignment title or question
 Logical organisation and linking of ideas
(coherence)
 Personal evaluation of issues under
discussion and/or application of a descriptive
framework to data

 Analysis, including originality of examples
used; or originality of narrative / poetic
structure in creative work
 Knowledge of the relevant contexts of the
subject
 Critical use of secondary material
 Clarity of expression
 Accuracy of grammar and punctuation
 Systematic and standardised in-text and
bibliographical references
 Final copy presentation and layout .
2) When assessing presentations consider the
following points
 Engagement of audience
 Use of appropriate supporting
materials/technology (OHP, Slides,
PowerPoint, handouts, audio, video etc.)
 Indicative references for use of secondary
material (e.g. on PowerPoint or handout.
 Time-keeping
 In the case of group presentations, group
cohesion and appropriate distribution of
roles.
Assessment Through Portfolio
Student portfolios are a collection of
evidence, prepared by the student and evaluated by
the faculty member, to demonstrate mastery,
comprehension, application, and synthesis of a
given set of concepts. To create a high quality
portfolio, students must organize, synthesize, and

clearly describe their achievements and effectively
communicate what they have learned. Portfolio
assessment strategies provide a structure for long-
duration, in-depth assignments. The use of
portfolios transfers much of the responsibility of
demonstrating mastery of concepts from the
professor to the student.
The overall goal of the preparation of a
portfolio is for the learner to demonstrate and
provide evidence that he or she has mastered a given
set of learning objectives. More than just thick
folders containing student work, portfolios are
typically personalized, long-term representations of
a student’s own efforts and achievements. Whereas
multiple-choice tests are designed to determine
what the student doesn’t know, portfolio
assessments emphasize what the student does know.
Some suggest that portfolios are not really
assessments at all because they are just collections
of previously completed assessments. But, if we
consider assessing as gathering of information
about someone or something for a purpose, then a
portfolio is a type of assessment. Sometimes the
portfolio is also evaluated or graded, but that is not
necessary to be considered an assessment.
Furthermore, in the more thoughtful portfolio
assignments, students are asked to reflect on their
work, to engage in self-assessment and goal-setting.
Those are two of the most authentic skills students
need to develop to successfully manage in the real
world. Research has found that students in classes

that emphasize improvement, progress, effort and
the process of learning rather than grades and
normative performance are more likely to use a
variety of learning strategies and have a more
positive attitude toward learning. Yet in education
we have shortchanged the process of learning in
favor of the products of learning. Students are not
regularly asked to examine how they succeeded or
failed or improved on a task or to set goals for future
work; the final product and evaluation of it receives
the bulk of the attention in many classrooms.
Consequently, students are not developing the
metacognitive skills that will enable them to reflect
upon and make adjustments in their learning in
school and beyond.
Portfolios provide an excellent vehicle for
consideration of process and the development of
related skills. So, portfolios are frequently included
with other types of authentic assessments because
they move away from telling a student's story
though test scores and, instead, focus on a
meaningful collection of student performance and
meaningful reflection and evaluation of that work.
Evaluation refers to the act of making a
judgment about something. Grading takes that
process one step further by assigning a grade to that
judgment. Evaluation may be sufficient for a
portfolio assignment. What is (are) the purpose(s)
of the portfolio? If the purpose is to demonstrate
growth, the teacher could make judgments about the
evidence of progress and provide those judgments

as feedback to the student or make note of them for
her own records. Similarly, the student could self-
assess progress shown or not shown, goals met or
not met. No grade needs to be assigned. On the other
hand, the work within the portfolio and the process
of assembling and reflecting upon the portfolio may
comprise such a significant portion of a student's
work in a grade or class that the teacher deems it
appropriate to assign a value to it and incorporate it
into the student's final grade. Alternatively, some
teachers assign grades because they believe without
grades there would not be sufficient incentive for
some students to complete the portfolio. Some
portfolios are assessed simply on whether or not the
portfolio was completed. Teachers assess the entire
package: the selected samples of student work as
well as the reflection, organization and presentation
of the portfolio.
GRADING SYSTEM
Fundamentally grade is a score. When
students level of performance are classified into a
few classificatory unit using letter grades , the
system of assessment is called grading system.
Grading in education is the process of applying
standardized measurements of varying levels of
achievement in a course. Grading system is
primarily a method of communicating the measure
of achievement. Another way the grade point
average (GPA) can be determined is through extra

curricular activities. Grades can be assigned as
letters (generally A through F), as a range (for
example 1 to 6), as a percentage of a total number
of questions answered correctly, or as a number out
of a possible total (for example out of 20 or 100).
Types of Grading
There is mainly two types of grading , direct
and indirect grading.
Direct Grading
Here particular grades are assigned to
answers of each individual questions on the basis of
its quality judged by the evaluator. The grade point
average will then have to be evaluated for obtaining
the overall grade of the student.
Indirect Grading
It is the process of giving grades through
marks. In this procedure marks are awarded as usual
. The conversion of marks into grade is based on two
view points. Two types of indirect grading are
absolute grading and relative grading.
In absolute grading some fixed range of
scores is determined in advance for each grade. On
the basis of this the score obtained by a candidate in
a subject is converted to grades. It is a type of
criterion based grading.
In relative grading the grade range is not
fixed in advance. It can carry in turn with the
relative position of the candidates .
Functions of Grading and Reporting Systems
Improve students’ learning by:

 clarifying instructional objectives for them
 showing students’ strengths & weaknesses
 providing information on personal-social
development
 enhancing students’ motivation (e.g., short-
term goals)
 indicating where teaching might be modified
Reports to parents/guardians
 Communicates objectives to parents, so they
can help promote learning
 Communicates how well objectives being
met, so parents can better plan
Administrative and guidance uses
 Help decide promotion, graduation, honors,
athletic eligibility
 Report achievement to other schools or to
employers
 Provide input for realistic educational,
vocational, and personal counseling
Advantages of Grading System
 The New Scheme of Grading has been
introduced with the aim that :
 It will minimize misclassification of students
on the basis of marks.
 It will eliminate unhealthy competition
among high achievers.

 It will reduce societal pressure and will
provide the learner with more flexibility.
 It will lead to a focus on a better learning
environment Operational
 It will facilitate joyful and stress free
learning.
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
PRACTICE BASED ASSESSMENT :
Constructivist and naturalistic classroom
environments give more opportunity for developing
practical abilities than behaviorist classrooms.
Assessing student learning in the practice setting is
one of the most sophisticated and complex forms of
activity. Assessment needs to include evaluation of
skill (technical, psychomotor and interpersonal),
attitudes and insights, and reasoning. Continuous
and comprehensive evaluation techniques are used
mainly for assessing learners piratical skills.
Importance is given for assessing the practical
capability to complete tasks in real life situations.
Some examples of practice based assessment are,
structured clinical examinations, performance in
viva, simulated practice scenario, project works,
preparation of presentations, etc
EVIDENCE BASED ASSESSMENT :
Evaluating student achievement of expected
learning outcomes should be treated as evidence-
based assessment. It means teachers assessing the
students about the achievement of learning

outcomes based some evidences. The evidence may
be achievement score on particular examination,
report submitted after completion of research, the
solution founded after completion of experiments,
etc.
PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT :
Knowing how to do something is measured
by performance tests such as portfolios, exhibitions
and demonstrations. Performance tests or
assessments provide greater realism of task that
traditional test like pen and paper tests but are very
time consuming. It can provide greater motivation
for students by making learning more meaningful
and clarifying goals. Performance assessment
require students to actively demonstrate what they
know. There is a big difference in answering
questions on how to give a speech or presentation
than actually giving one.
Performance assessment may be used for
diagnostic purposes. Information provided at the
beginning of the course may help decide where to
start or what needs special attention. To improve the
results of performance assessment criterias that are
being judged must be clear and defined. Instructions
must also be clear and complete. Records must be
done as soon as possible after the performance and

the evaluation form must be relevant and easy to
use. Also the use of portfolios and student
participation can contribute to the improvement of
performance assessments.
Performance assessment is an excellent way
of determining whether pupils have mastered the
outcome/s. In other words it provides for realism of
a task and increase makes such as task complicated
or complex, therefore it shows whether pupils
understood the concepts taught. It is a skillful
assessment for challenging ones cognitive skills.
Benefits of Performance Assessment
Performance assessment is an excellent
indicator to display a child’s true potential and
ability. Benefits of Performance Assessments are ;
 They systematically document what children
know and can do based on activities they engage
in on a daily basis in their classrooms. In
addition, performance assessment evaluates
thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis,
evaluation, and interpretation of facts and ideas
— skills which standardized tests generally
avoid.
 They are flexible enough to permit teachers to
assess each child's progress using information

obtained from ongoing classroom interactions
with materials and peers. In other words, they
permit an individualized approach to assessing
abilities and performance.
 They are a means for improving instruction,
allowing teachers to plan a comprehensive,
developmentally oriented curriculum based on
their knowledge of each child.
 They provide valuable, in-depth information for
parents, administrators, and other policy makers.
 They put responsibility for monitoring what
children are learning — and what teachers are
teaching — in the hands of teachers.
EXAMINATION BASED ASSESSMENT
Assessment of learner’s performance with
the support of different forms of test or examination
is known as examination based
assessment.A test or examination (informally, exa
m) is an assessment intended to measure a test-
taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness,
or classification in many other topics. A test may
be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer,
or in a confined area that requires a test taker to
physically perform a set of skills. Tests vary in
style, rigor and requirements. For example, in a
closed book test, a test taker is often required to rely

upon memory to respond to specific items whereas
in an open book test, a test taker may use one or
more supplementary tools such as a reference book
or calculator when responding to an item. A test
may be administered formally or informally and
with the help of standardised and non-standardised
tests.
A standardized test is any test that is
administered and scored in a consistent manner to
ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are
often used in education, professional
certification, psychology , the military, and many
other fields. A non-standardized test is usually
flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty
and significance. Since these tests are usually
developed by individual instructors, the format and
difficulty of these tests may not be widely adopted
or used by other instructors or institutions. A non-
standardized test may be used to determine the
proficiency level of students, to motivate students to
study, and to provide feedback to students.
Written tests are tests that are administered
on paper or on a computer. A test taker who takes a
written test could respond to specific items by
writing or typing within a given space of the test or
on a separate form or document. The responses of
test taker will give evidence for the achievement of
students. So examination based assessment is
common form of assessment prevailing in all
countries.

PRACTICES OF ASSESSMENT
Dialogue
The term dialogue derives from the Greek
term di-a-logos, an exploration of dialogues in
Greek philosophy is a necessary start. According to
Hamilton (2002) etymologically, dialogue does not
denote two people speaking with each other (the
conventional use in English). Rather the Greek
prefix di means ‘through’, thus explaining why
diaphanous means ‘see-through’. Logos has a dual
meaning. It can mean rationality but also
communication or discourse. It can then be
suggested that the combination of dia and logos
means “reasoning-through” and the dual meaning of
the term logos allows us to establish a link between
reasoning and communication. It seems therefore
justifiable to propose that Di-a-logos signifies
reasoning through interaction in a communicative
manner and hence proposing that the emergence of
rationality is mediated “through” interaction is one
of its constitutive characteristics.
In psychological terms, dialogue incorporates
activities aimed at shared knowledge construction;
in sociological terms, dialogue is akin to interactive
action, enabling learners to greater participation in
society; in literary terms dialogue may entail
interactive processes which open the reader to other
perspectives and broaden the reader’s conceptual
horizon to enter into the dimension of the writer’s
intentionality. All of these activities necessitate, at

least in some degree, the achievement of shared
meaning.
Education is widely believed to have the
power to shape society, and therefore it is not
surprising that sociologists have a special interest in
educational practices. Relationships in society often
are an amplified version of the teaching and
learning relationship. It is important at this point to
clarify the connection between education and
democracy with the view to argue that the infusion
of dialogue in education entails a democratisation of
educational practices.
Dialogue has been described as a method, a process,
an activity, an ethical relation, a model of cognition,
a semiotic exchange and a praxis. Its
conceptualization varies greatly in terms of
definition and function . Pedagogical dialogue is in
first place a way of being rather than a method in the
process of learning. This entails the establishment
of relations that foster mutuality, respect for
difference, trust, reciprocity and shared –but not
forced to converge -understanding through the
means available in a particular context of practice.
Dialogue should be infused in all educational
practices, including assessment.
The connection between assessment and
dialogue is not straightforward. Assessment and
dialogue may be seen as antithetical in some
quarters. Pedagogical dialogue and educational
practice are activities necessarily situated in specific
educational contexts. Therefore the contextual

dimension of such practices plays an important role
in their reconceptualization. More specifically it
also argues that pedagogical dialogue can offer a
productive theoretical basis for re-conceiving the
interaction between assessors and assessees in
educational assessment in order to maximise
students’ development -both educational and
personal. Dialogue and learning are both processes.
Therefore the association of dialogue with
assessment should lead to reframing assessment as
a process. So through dialogue or interaction
between teacher and students we can assess the
student’s performance.
Feedback Through Marking
Providing relevant and timely feedback to
pupils, both orally and in writing, brings positive
behaviours in pupils. Marking intends to serve the
purposes of valuing pupils’ learning, helping to
diagnose areas for development or next steps, and
evaluating how well the learning task has been
understood. Marking should be a process of creating
a dialogue with the learner, through which feedback
can be exchanged and questions asked; the learner
is actively involved in the process.
Marking And Feedback Strategies To Be Used
In Schools

The following strategies can be used to mark,
assess and provide feedback:
1. Verbal Feedback
This means an adult having direct contact with a
child to discuss work that has been completed. It is
particularly appropriate with younger, less able or
less confident children. Verbal feedback will be the
main strategy being used in the Foundation Stage.
A discussion should be accompanied by the
appropriate marking code symbol in the child’s
book or remark to serve as a permanent record for
the child, teacher and parent. In some cases it may
be helpful to add a record of the time taken and
context in which the work was done.
2. Success Criteria Checklist
Success Criteria checklists can be used in all
subjects and may include columns for self/peer
assessment and teacher assessment. These should
be differentiated where appropriate.
3. Peer Marking
Children are encouraged to support each
other and feedback on learning and achievement.
Children should be given the opportunity to act as
response partners and pair mark work. Children

should be trained to do this and ground rules set and
displayed. Children should be able to first point out
things that they like then suggest ways to improve
the piece but only against the learning objective or
success criteria. The pairing of children should be
on ability or trust.
4. Quality feedback comments.
Personalized quality feedback comments
should be used frequently in all subject areas to
extend learning and must be differentiated
appropriately. When marking, teachers will be
looking for opportunities to extend children’s
learning either by clarification or providing
prompts. All work should be marked in green pen
and written comments should reflect the school’s
handwriting style.
5. Marking codes
It is imperative that any marking codes are
used consistently across the school so that there is
no misunderstanding from the child’s point of view
as to what is expected of them.
Self & Peer Assessment
Self-assessment is a process of formative
assessment during which students reflect on and

evaluate the quality of their work and their learning,
judge the degree to which they reflect explicitly
stated goals or criteria, identify strengths and
weaknesses in their work, and revise accordingly.
According to Boud (1995), all assessment including
self-assessment comprises two main elements:
making decisions about the standards of
performance expected and then making judgments
about the quality of the performance in relation to
these standards. Students should be involved in
establishing the criteria for judgment as well as in
evaluating their own work . Regardless of the ways
in which the criteria are set up, students need to be
absolutely clear about the standards of work to
which they are aspiring, and if possible, have
practice in thinking about sample work in relation
to these criteria.
Need for Self Assessment
 Self-evaluation builds on a natural tendency to
check out the progress of one‟s own learning.
 Further learning is only possible after the
recognition of what needs to be learned.
 If a student can identify his/her learning
progress, this may motivate further learning.
 Self-evaluation encourages reflection on one‟s
own learning.
 Self-assessment can promote learner
responsibility and independence.
 Self-assessment tasks encourage student
ownership of the learning.

 Self-assessment tasks shift the focus from
something imposed by someone else to a
potential partnership.
 Self-assessment emphasizes the formative
aspects of assessment.
 Self-assessment encourages a focus on process.
 Self-assessment can accommodate diversity of
learners‟ readiness, experience and
backgrounds.
 Self-assessment practices align well with the
shift in the higher education literature from a
focus on teacher performance to an emphasis on
student learning.
Peer Assessment
There are many variants of peer assessment,
but essentially it involves students providing
feedback to other students on the quality of their
work. In some instances, the practice of peer
feedback will include the assigning of a grade, but
this is widely recognized to be a process that is
fraught with difficulties. “Peer assessment requires
students to provide either feedback or grades (or
both) to their peers on a product or a performance,
based on the criteria of excellence for that product
or event which students may have been involved in
determining”. Peer learning builds on a process that
is part of our development from the earliest years of
life .
Use of Peer Assessment

 Peer feedback can encourage collaborative
learning through interchange about what
constitutes good work.
 If the course wants to promote peer learning
and collaboration in other ways, then the
assessment tasks need to align with this. It is
also important to recognize the extra work
that peer learning activities may require from
students through the assessment.
 Students can help each other to make sense of
the gaps in their learning and understanding
and to get a more sophisticated grasp of the
learning process.
 The conversation around the assessment
process is enhanced. Research evidence
indicates that peer feedback can be used very
effectively in the development of students‟
writing skills.
 Students engaged in commentary on the work
of others can heighten their own capacity for
judgment and making intellectual choices.
 Students receiving feedback from their peers
can get a wider range of ideas about their
work to promote development and
improvement.
 Peer evaluation helps to lessen the power
imbalance between teachers and students and
can enhance the students‟ status in the
learning process.

 The focus of peer feedback can be on process,
encouraging students to clarify, review and
edit their ideas.
 It is possible to give immediate feedback, so
formative learning can be enhanced. Peer
assessment processes can help students learn
how to receive and give feedback which is an
important part of most work contexts.
 Peer assessment aligns with the notion that an
important part of the learning process is
gradually understanding and articulating the
values and standards of a “community of
practice” .
Formative use of summative assessment
Summative assessment
(assessment of learning) is the assessment that
involves an evaluation of student achievement
resulting in a grade or a certification. Both
formative assessment (assessment for learning) and
summative assessment have vital roles to play in the
education of students, and although on the surface
they may not seem to have much in common, there
are identified ways they can work together to
improve student learning. Making formative use of
summative assessment means using information
derived from summative assessment to improve
future student performance.
For the teacher it involves:

 providing a range of assessment tasks and
opportunities to make certain that a range of student
learning styles are catered for
 teaching students to prepare more efficiently for
summative assessment by making use of knowledge
about themselves as learners
 making use of the results of summative assessment
so that learning is emphasised.
For the student it involves:
 developing the ability to identify 'where I am now'
and 'where I need to be'… and to prepare for
summative assessment accordingly
 recognising that summative assessment experiences
are an opportunity for further learning and a chance
to improve future .
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. How will you assess students in behaviorist
classroom ?
2. Explain the benefits of CCE .
3.What is the uses of grading ?
4. What is examination based assessment ?
5.What is the benefits of performance based
assessment ?
6. List out the uses of practice based assessment ?
7. Explain the importance of feedback through
marking .
8.Differentiate self and peer assessments?

9. Explain the concept of formative use of
summative assessment .
UNIT - III
TOOLS & TECHNIQUES FOR CLASSROOM
ASSESSMENT
Assessment is a systematic process of
gathering information about what a student knows,
is able to do, and is learning to do. Assessment
information provides the foundation for decision-
making and planning for instruction and learning.
Assessment is an integral part of instruction that
enhances, empowers, and celebrates student
learning. Using a variety of assessment techniques,
teachers gather information about what students
know and are able to do, and provide positive,
supportive feedback to students. They also use this
information to diagnose individual needs and to
improve their instructional programs, which in turn
helps students learn more effectively.
Assessment must be considered during the
planning stage of instruction when learning
outcomes and teaching methods are being targeted.
It is a continuous activity, not something to be dealt
with only at the end of a unit of study. Students
should be made aware of the expected outcomes of
the course and the procedures to be used in
assessing performance relative to the learning
outcomes. Students can gradually become more
actively involved in the assessment process in order
to develop lifelong learning skills.

Evaluation refers to the decision making
which follows assessment. Evaluation is a judgment
regarding the quality, value, or worth of a response,
product, or performance based on established
criteria and curriculum standards. Evaluation
should reflect the intended learning outcomes of the
curriculum and be consistent with the approach
used to teach the language in the classroom. But it
should also be sensitive to differences in culture,
gender, and socio-economic background. Students
should be given opportunities to demonstrate the
full extent of their knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Evaluation is also used for reporting progress to
parents or guardians, and for making decisions
related to such things as student promotion and
awards.
Classroom Assessment is a systematic approach to
formative evaluation, used by instructors to
determine how much and how well students are
learning. Classroom assessment tools and
techniques and other informal assessment tools
provide key information during the semester
regarding teaching and learning so that changes can
be made as necessary. The central purpose of
Classroom Assessment is to empower both teachers
and their students to improve the quality of learning
in the classroom through an approach that is learner-
centered, teacher-directed, mutually beneficial,
formative, context-specific, and firmly rooted in
good practice. It helps for assessing course-related
knowledge and skills, learner attitudes, values and

self-awareness and for assessing learner reactions to
instruction.
In the classroom, teachers are the primary
assessors of students. Teachers design assessment
tools with two broad purposes: to collect
information that will inform classroom instruction,
and to monitor students’ progress towards achieving
year-end learning outcomes. Teachers also assist
students in developing self-monitoring and self-
assessment skills and strategies. To do this
effectively, teachers must ensure that students are
involved in setting learning goals, developing
action plans, and using assessment processes to
monitor their achievement of goals. The different
tools and techniques used in classroom assessment
are the following ;
 Observation,
 Self Reporting,
 Testing;
 Anecdotal Records,
 Check Lists,
 Rating Scale,
OBSERVATION
From the earliest history of scientific
activity, observation has been the prevailing
methods of inquiry. Observation of natural
phenomena judged by systematic classification and
measurement led to the development of theories
and laws of nature’s force. Observation is one of

the most refined modern research technique.
Observation seeks to ascertain what people think
and do by walking them in action as they express
themselves in various situations and activities. It
can be made progressively more scientific to meet
the needs of the particular situation and observation
is a fundamental tool even at the most advanced
levels of science.
Observation is recognized as the most direct
means of studying people when one is interested in
their overt behavior. Observation is defined as “a
planned methodological watching that involves
constraints to improve accuracy.” According to
Gardner (1975), observation is the selection,
provocation, recording and encoding of that set of
behaviours and settings concerning organism “in
situ’ whcih arc consistent with empirical aims.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION
1. Observation is at once a physical as well as
mental activity.
2. Observation is selective and purposeful.
3. Scientific observation is systematic
4. Observation is specific 5) Scientific
observation is objective.
5. Scientific observation is quantitative.
6. The record of observation is immediately.
7. Observation is verifiable
8. Behavior is observed is natural surroundings

9. It enables understanding significant events
affecting social
i. relations of the participants.
10.It determines reality from the perspective of
observed person himself.
11.It identifies regularities and recurrences in
social life by comparing data is one study
with those in another study.
12.It focused on hypotheses free inquiry
13.It avoids manipulations in the independent
variable.
14.Observation involves some controls
pertaining to the observe and to the means he
uses to record data.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
1) Casual & Scientific observation
An observation may be either casual or
scientific. Casual observation occurs without any
previous preparations. Scientific observation is
carried out with the help of tools of measurement.
2) Simple and systematic observation
Observation is found in almost all research
studies, at least in the exploratory stage. Such data
collection is often called simple observation. Its
practice is not very standardized. Systematic
observation it employs standardized procedures,
training of observers, schedules for recording.

3. Subjective and Objective Observation
One may have to observe one’s own
immediate experience, it is called subjective
observation. In any investigations, the observer is
an entity apart from the thing observed, that type of
observation is called objective observation
4. Intra – subjective and inter subjective
observation
If repeated observation of a constant
phenomenon by the same observer yield constant
data the observation is said to be intra subjective. If
repeated observations of a constant phenomenon
by different observers yield constant data the
observation is said to be inter subjective
5. Direct and indirect observation
The direct observation describes the
situation in which the observer is physically present
and personally monitors what take place. Indirect
observation is used to describe studies in which the
recording is done by mechanical, photographic or
electronic means.
6. Structured and Un structured observation
Structured observation is organised and
planned which employs formal procedures, has a
set of well defined observation categories, and is
subjectd to high levels of control and
differentiation. Unstructured observations is
loosely organized and the process is largely left to
the observer to define.
7. Natural and Artificial Observation

Natural observation is one in which
observation is made in natural settings while
artificial observation is one in which observation is
made in a laboratory conditions
8. Participant and Non-participant
observation
When the observer participates with the
activities of these under study is called participant
observation Merits:- Acquiring wide information,
Easy in exchange of clear observation of neutral
and real behavior. Limitations :- larger time
required, greater resources required lack of
objectivity.
When the observer does not actually
participate in the activities of the group to be
studied but simply present in the group it is
common as non participant observation. The
observer in this method makes not effort to his
influence or to create a relationship between him
and the group.
Merits:- Acquiring information with influence ,
maintaining impartial status, maintaining
objectivity and scientific outlet.
Limitations:- Inadequate and incomplete
observation, subjectivity, Unnatural attitude of the
subject matter of observation
Organization Of Field Observation
For valid and useful field observation, the
following steps have be taken .

1. Determination of the method of study ie the
field observation in relation to the
phenomena.
2. Determination of the nature and limits of
observation is the preparation of a plan of
observation
3. Decision as of directness of observation ie
the relationship between the observer and the
subject must be direct.
4. Determination of Expert investigations
/Agency of field observation is the person
who makes observation may be the
researcher himself or the field workers
5. Determination of time, place and subject to
study
6. Provision of mechanical Appliances needed
in the usage of various instrumental aids like
camera, maps.
7. Data collection, having arranged all the
necessary tools and equipments need for
research.
8. Data analysis :- The data should be
analyzed and processed
through classification, tabulation etc.
9. Generalization :- The interpretation leading
to draw general conclusion
Steps In Observation.
1. Selection of the topic :- This refers to
determining the issue to be studied
through observations e.g.:- material
conflict, riot etc.

2. Formulation of the topic :- This
involves fixing up categories to be
observed and pointing out situations in
which cases are to be observed.
3. Research design :- This determines
identification of subjects to be observed
preparing observation schedule if any
and arranging entry in situations to be
observed.
4. Collection of data :- This involves
familiarization with the setting,
observation and recording.
5. Analysis of data :- The researcher
analyze the data, prepares tables of
interprets.
6. Report writing :- This involves writing
of the report for submission to the
sponsoring agency or for publication.
Guidelines To Effective Observation
1. Obtain Prior knowledge of what to observe.
2. Examine general and specific objective.
3. Define and Establish categories, each
category or level of data being collected
should be concisely and carefully described
by indicating the phenomena the
investigator expects to find in each.
4. Observe carefully and critically.
5. Rate specific phenomena independently,
using well defined

rating scale.
6. Devise a method of recording results ie the
observation schedule.
7. Become well acquainted with the recording
instrument.
8. Observers would separate the facts from
their interpretation at a later time. They can
observe the facts, and make interpretation at
a later time.
9. Observations are to be checked and verified,
wherever possible by repetition or by
comparison with those of other competent
observers.
Instruments In Observation
Instruments such as the camera, stopwatch,
light meter, audiometer, SET meter, audio and
video tape recorders, mechanical counter, and other
devices like detailed field notes, checklist, maps,
schedules, store cards , socio-metric scales etc
make possible observations that are more precise
than mere sense observations. Such things are also
referred as techniques of control as used in
controlled observation.
Process Of Observation
Observation involves three process ie
sensation , attention perception. Sensation in
gained through the sense organs which depends

upon the physical alertness of the observer. Then
comes attention on concentration which is largely a
matter of habit. The third is perception which
comprises the interpretation of sensory reports.
Thus sensation merely reports the mind to recognize
the facts.
Qualities Of A Good Observer
 The observer should pocess efficient sense
organs.
 The observer must able to estimate rapidly and
accurately
 The observer must possess sufficient alertness’
to observer several details simultaneously .
 The observer must be able to control the effects
of his personal prejudices.
 The observer should be in good physical
conditions
 The observer must be able to record immediately
and Accurately
 The observer should be a visiting stranger, an
attentive, listener eager learner of a participant
observer.
VARIOUS STEPS OF GOOD OBSERVATION
1. Intelligent planning
Intelligent planning should be needed in a
good observation, the observer should be fully
trained as well equipped, too many variables may

not be observed simultaneously, the conditions of
observation should remain constant.
2. Expert execution
An expert execution demands utilizing the
training received in terms of expertness, proper,
arrangement of special conditions for the subject,
occupying, phisical observing, focussing attention
on the specific well defined activities, observing
discreet keeping in mind the length, number and
intervals of observation decided up on and handling
well the recording instruments to be used.
3. Adequate recording
The recording should be as comprehensive
as possible to over all the points and not miss any
substantive issues
4. Scientific Interpretation
The interpretation made and recorded
comprehensively need to be interpreted carefully.
So adequacies and competencies required for this
need to be present in an observer. This alone
facilities a good interpretation.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
1. It allows collection of wide range of
information
2. It is a flexible technique in which research
design can be modified at any time
3. It is less complicated and less time
consuming.

4. It approaches reality in its natural structure
and studies events as they evolve.
5. It is relatively inexpenience
6. The observer can assess the emotional
reaction of subjects.
7. The observer is able to record the content
which gives meaning to respondant’s
expression
8. The behaviour being observed in natural
environment will not cause any bias.
9. Superior in data collection on dependable
and convincing
10.Greater accuracy and reliability of data.
11.Results are more dependable and convincing
LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION
1. Establishing the validity of observation is
always difficult
2. The problem of subjectivity also involved
3. There is the possibility of distortion of the
phenomena through the very act of
observing.
4. It is a slow and laborious process
5. The events may not be easily classifiable
6. The data may be unmanageable
7. It is going to be a costly affair
8. It cannot offer quantitative generations.
SELF REPORTING
Self-reporting is one of the modern technique
of assessing student’s views and personality. It

gives a clear cut idea about student’s needs,
attitudes, wants, etc. A self-report is a type of
survey, questionnaire, or poll in which respondents
read the question and select a response by
themselves without researcher interference. A self-
report is any method which involves asking a
participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs
and so on. Examples of self-reports are
questionnaires and interviews; self-reports are often
used as a way of gaining participants' responses in
observational studies and experiments.
Questionnaires are a type of self-report
method which consist of a set of questions usually
in a highly structured written form. Questionnaires
can contain both open questions and closed
questions and participants record their own
answers. Interviews are a type of spoken
questionnaire where the interviewer records the
responses. Interviews can be structured whereby
there is a predetermined set of questions or
unstructured whereby no questions are decided in
advance. The main strength of self-report methods
are that they are allowing participants to describe
their own experiences rather than inferring this from
observing participants. Questionnaires and
interviews are often able to study large samples of
people fairly easy and quickly. They are able to
examine a large number of variables and can ask
people to reveal behaviour and feelings which have
been experienced in real situations. However
participants may not respond truthfully, either

because they cannot remember or because they wish
to present themselves in a socially acceptable
manner. Social desirability bias can be a big
problem with self-report measures as participants
often answer in a way to portray themselves in a
good light. Questions are not always clear and we
do not know if the respondent has really understood
the question we would not be collecting valid data.
If questionnaires are sent out, say via email or
through tutor groups, response rate can be very low.
Questions can often be leading. That is, they may be
unwittingly forcing the respondent to give a
particular reply.
Unstructured interviews can be very time
consuming and difficult to carry out whereas
structured interviews can restrict the respondents’
replies. Therefore psychologists often carry out
semi-structured interviews which consist of some
pre-determined questions and followed up with
further questions which allow the respondent to
develop their answers.
Closed questions are questions which provide
a limited choice (for example, a participant’s age or
their favourite type of football team), especially if
the answer must be taken from a predetermined list.
Such questions provide quantitative data, which is
easy to analyse. However these questions do not
allow the participant to give in-depth insights. Open
questions are those questions which invite the
respondent to provide answers in their own words
and provide qualitative data. Although these type of

questions are more difficult to analyse, they can
produce more in-depth responses and tell the
researcher what the participant actually thinks,
rather than being restricted by categories.
One of the most common rating scales for
self-reporting is the Likert scale. A statement is
used and the participant decides how strongly they
agree or disagree with the statements. One strength
of Likert scales is that they can give an idea about
how strongly a participant feels about something.
This therefore gives more detail than a simple yes
no answer. Another strength is that the data are
quantitative, which are easy to analyse statistically.
The great advantage of self reporting is that it
gives free environment to response or show their
emotions. At the same time there may be
possibilities for hiding natural emotions as per
situations.
ANECDOTAL RECORDS
A fundamental purpose of assessment is to
communicate what the child knows and is able to
do. Teacher-generated, anecdotal records provide
an insider’s perspective of the child’s educational
experience. This perspective is vital to
communication with the child and the child’s family
about academic progress. Anecdotal records also
facilitate assessment conversations as educational
professionals describe their observations of student
learning and consider ways to develop appropriate
strategies to build on strengths and address
academic needs. The more focused the

observational records, the more helpful they can be
in making daily decisions about instructional
approaches.
Anecdotal Records are collections of
narratives involving first-hand observations of
interesting, illuminating incidents in children’s
literacy development. Anecdotal records are reports
about the teacher informal observations about
students. It will helps the teacher to collect details
regarding student’s behaviours at different
situations. It will be a good tool to bring positive
behavioral patterns through daily observation and
correction. It involves the following informations ;
 Social interactions and literacy exchanges that
teacher have observed
 Children’s everyday routines, such as what they
choose to do in center workshops; a particular
writing topic in a journal or on a sheet of paper
during independent writing time; the book they
choose during independent reading time; and
when they spend time with blocks, sand, painting,
or other forms of creative expression
 Children’s learning styles
 Recurring patterns in children’s ways of
understanding
 Changes in children’s behaviors
 Milestones in children’s development
Steps Involved In Preparation Of Anecdotal
Records
Teachers basically use the following steps for
the preparation of Anecdotal records ;

1. Observing children in instructional settings :
Formal and information is the starting point in the
preparation of anecdotal records.
2. Maintaining a standards-based focus :
Follow some criterias as standards at the time of
observation.
3. Making anecdotal records :
Writing quality anecdotal records is facilitated by
keeping in mind the following considerations: Write
observable data, use significant abbreviations, write
records in the past tense.
4. Managing anecdotal records :
Once the records are coded for strengths,
needs, or information, simply list an abbreviated
summary of the strengths and the needs in the space
provided below the records. Separating the records
into strengths and needs allows the teacher to
summarize what patterns are being exhibited by the
student. The summary also helps clarify and
generate appropriate instructional
recommendations.
5. Analysis of anecdotal records:
Anecdotal records assessment is informed by
comparing the standards to the child’s performance.
The standards also inform the selection of strategies
and activities for instructional recommendations.
Periodically, analyze the compiled records for each
student. The time between analyses may vary
according to your own academic calendar.
RATING SCALE

Rating scale is one of the scaling techniques
applied to the procedures for attempting to
determine quantitative measures of subjective
abstract concepts. It gives an idea of the personality
of an individual as the observer judge the behavior
of a person includes a limited number of aspects of
a thing or of traits.
Rating means the judgment of one person by
another. “Rating is in essence directed
observation”. Writes Ruth Strang. A.S. Barr and
other define, “Rating is a term applied to expression
of opinion or judgment regarding some situation,
objects or character. Opinions are usually expressed
on a scale or values. Rating techniques are devises
by which such judgments may be qualified.”
A rating scale is a method by which we
systematize the expression of opinion concerning a
trait. The ratings are done by parents, teachers, a
board of interviewers and judges and by the self as
well.
Rating is a term applied to expression of
opinion or judgment regarding some situation,
object or character. Opinions are usually expressed
on a scale of values.
Rating scale refers to a set of points which
describe varying degrees of the dimension of an
attribute being observed.
CHARACTERISTICS
There are two characteristics of a rating
scale.

1. Description of the characteristics to be
related,
2. Some methods by which the quality,
frequency or importance of each item to be
rated may be given.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING RATING SCALE
1. The trait to be treated should be reading
observable.
2. The specific trait or mode of behavior must
be defined
properly. For example, we want to rate a
child’s originality in performing a task.
First of all we must formulate a definition
of ‘originality’ and then try to rate it.
3. The scale should be clearly defined ie, We
are rating at a three, four or fire-point scale.
4. Uniform standards of rating scale should be
observed.
5. The rater should observe the rates in
different situations involving the trait to be
rated.
6. The number of characteristics to be rated
should be limited.
7. In the rating scale, card, some space may be
provided for the rater to write some
supplementary material.
8. The directions of using the rating scales
should be clear and comprehensive.
9. Several judges may be employed to
increase the reliability of any rating scale.

10.Well informed and experienced persons
should be selected for
rating.
TYPES OF RATING SCALE
A number of rating techniques have been
developed which enable the observers to assign
numerical values or ratings to their judgments of
behavior.
According to Guilford (1954, P. 263) these
techniques have given rise to five board categories
of rating scale.
1. Numerical scale (Itemized rating scale)
2. Graphic scale
3. Standard scale
4. Rating by cumulative points
5. Forced choice ratings.
Numerical Scale
In the typical numerical scale, a sequence of
defined numbers is applied to the rater or the
observer, The rater assigns an appropriate number
in line to each stimulus.
Eg. Guilfor (1954, P 263) used in obtaining
ratings of the effective values of colours and orders
as follows:-
10. Most pleasant imaginable
9. Most pleasant
8. Extremely pleasant
7. Moderately pleasant
6. Mildly present
5. Indifferent
4. Mildly unpleasant

3. Modularity unpleasant
2. Extremely unpleasant
1. Most unpleasant
0. Most unpleasant imaginable
Thus in a typical numerical scale, numbers
are assigned to each trait. If it is a seven point scale
the number of 7 represents the maximum amount of
that trait in the individual and 4 represents the
construct.
Numerical rating scale are easiest to
construct and to apply. They are simplest in
handling the results. But this rating scales are
rejected in favor of other types of scales because it
is believed that they suffer from many biases and
errors.
Graphic Scale
Graphic scale is the most popular and widely
used type of rating scale. In this scale, a straight line
is shown. Vertically or horizontally, The line is
either segmented in units or it is continuous. Scale
points with brief description may be indicated along
the line.
There are many advantages of graphic scale.
- Simple and easy to administer
- Require little added motivation
- Provides opportunity for fine
discrimination
It has certain limitation also. The respondents
may check at almost any position along the line
which fact may increase the difficulty of analysis.
The meaning of the terms like ‘very much’ and

‘some what’ may depend upon respondent’s frame
of reference.
Standard scales.
In standard scales a set of standards is
presented to the rater. The standards are usually
objects of some kind to be rated with preestablished
scale values. The man to man scale and portrait
matching scale are other two forms that conform
more or less to the principle of standards scales.
Man – to – man scale is used in connection with
military personal. The portrait – matching
technique was first used in connection with the
studies of character by Hartyshorne and May
(1929)
Rating By Cumulative PointS
Here the rates is asked to give the percentage
of the group that prosses the trait on which the
individual is rated
Forced Choice Ratings:
In this method, the rater is asked, not to say
whether the rate has a certain trait or to say how
much of a trait the ratee has but to say essentially
whether he was more of one trait than another of a
pair. In the construction of a forced – choice rating
instrument, descriptions are obtained concerning
persons who are recognized as being at the highest
and lowest extremes of the performance continue
for a particular group to be rated. Descriptions are
analyzed into simple behavior qualities stated in
very short sentences, which have been called –
‘elevents’ by Sission (1945) and preference value

are determined for each element. In forming an
item, elements are paired. Two statements or terms
with the same high preference value are paired, one
of which is valid and the other not. Two statements
or terms with about equally low preference value
are also paired, one being valid and the other not.
USE AND ADVANTAGES OF RATING
SCALES
1. Helpful in measuring specified outcomes or
objectives of education
2. Helpful in supplementing other sources of
understanding about the child.
3. Helpful in their simulating effect upon the
individuals who are rated.
4. Helpful in writing reports to parents
5. Helpful in filling out admission
6. Helpful in finding out student’s needs
7. Helpful in making recommendations to the
employers.
8. Helpful to the students to rate himself.
LIMITATIONS
1. Some characteristics are more different to
rate.
2. Subjective element is present.
3. Lack of opportunities to rate students.
4. Rates tend to be generally generous.
ERRORS IN RATING

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