Performance Analysis of Efficient Position-Based Opportunistic Routing for MANET

1. Performance Analysis of Efficient
Position-Based Opportunistic Routing
for MANET
N.S. Kavitha, P. Malathi, Jim Mathew Philip and S. Pravinth Raja
Abstract Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is the kind of ad hoc networks that
dynamically form a temporary network by connecting the mobile nodes without any
support of central administration and wires. This work coins the difficulties of
delivering the data packets to the MANET circumstance in a reliable fashion and in
good timely manner, which reside to be a highly dynamic in nature. In MANET,
there are several routing algorithms, which consume topology information to make
routing decisions at each node. Practical routing protocols must handle intermittent
connectivity and the absence of end-to-end connections. An Efficient Position-Based
Opportunistic Routing (EPOR) protocol is proposed and it will be able to take the
advantage of stateless property, which uses two terms (1) geographic routing
(2) broadcast nature of wireless medium. When the packet transmission starts,
neighbor nodes have chance to overhear the transmission of messages, and it will act
as a forwarding candidate. Thus, the node which was overheard the transmission
information will forward the packets by enhancing the informations. The apt for-
warder will identify the falsely relay node within a limited amount of time. The
proposed algorithm removes the drawbacks of the existing GPSR and AOMDV. The
additional latency occurred by the local route recovery has maximum being reduced
and the duplicate relaying due to packet reroute can also be decreased. The proposed
scheme of Virtual Destination-based Void Handling (VDVH) combined with EPOR
protocol in a communication hole. The EPOR result demonstrates that can able to
succeed the greater performance even under high mobility of nodes with consider-
able overhead and the new VDVH scheme also works well. This paper focuses on
various performance evaluation metrics such as latency, throughput for the EPOR
routing protocols and experimentally compared the performance of three routing
protocols using NS-2 simulator.
N.S. Kavitha (&) Á J.M. Philip Á S. Pravinth Raja
Department of CSE, Sri Ramakrishna Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India
e-mail: nsksrit@gmail.com
P. Malathi
Bharathiyar Institute of Engineering for Women, Salem, India
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018
N.R. Shetty et al. (eds.), Emerging Research in Computing, Information,
Communication and Applications, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4741-1_63
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2. Keywords Medium access layer Á Mobile ad hoc network Á Efficient
position-based opportunistic routing Á Position-based routing
1 Introduction
Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) deals with number of mobile nodes that are free
to move randomly. This is not in the case of the existing Internet, where the router
topology is fundamentally static in nature (barring router failures or network con-
figuration). In a MANET, the nodes are mobiles and inter-node connectivity may
changes frequently due to dynamic configuration of network topology. In this track,
we focus our attention on current protocols that affords the connectivity of route in
MANET, such as Routing protocols [1]. The challenging problem of MANET
especially the routing approaches where designed efficiently and reliably by uti-
lizing the limited resources. An intellectual routing approach is recommended that
proficiently uses the limited resources. Meanwhile the configuration of routing
needed to adapt to the dynamic changes of network conditions such as network
size, network partitioning, and traffic density [2].
The former interest of wireless networking is infrastructure network (wired
networks). In wired networks, two main algorithms are used and they referred as
link state and distance vector algorithms. In link-state routing algorithm, each of the
Mobile Node (MN) or terminal periodically updates the network status by using a
flooding strategy [3]. The update does by the process of broadcasting the costs- of-
link-state routing of its neighboring nodes to other MNs. When each of the MNs
receives an update packet, thus they update the entire network view and their
link-state information. The Shortest path algorithm of link state provides the next
hop node with the minimal distance from the source node to reach the desired
destination. In distance vector routing, each node updates the network status by a
periodical propagation of signals among the nodes for attaining the distance to
every node [1, 4]. The conventional link-state routing and distance vector routing
algorithm not supported in large MANETs. Due to periodic or frequent changes of
network route updates in large network that may consume adequate resources such
as bandwidth, power consumption that leads to frequent recharge of mobile ter-
minals battery and increases the channel contention.
Conventional topology-based Mobile Ad hoc Network routing protocols is
reasonably prone to node mobility. The crucial reason for occurrences of vulner-
ability is due to the pre determination of routes before data transmission [5, 6].
Owing to the frequent and rapid change of topology leads to hard maintainability of
paths during transmission. Eventually, the discovery and recovery of routes con-
sumes more time that reduces the mobile nodes energy. In this case, if the path
breaks then the data packets will lose or delayed for long time until the reconfig-
uration or reconstruction of the route has handled that causes interruption during the
transmission of data packets.
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3. Geographic routing (GR) utilizes the location information to the purpose of
forwarding data packets, which will utilize the hop-by-hop routing fashion [6]. To
select the next hop forwarder, the Greedy forwarding takes the largest positive
progress toward the destination. In order to trigger the route around communication
voids, void handling mechanism is used. The key aspect of GR ensures the scal-
ability and high efficiency thus the maintenance regarding the end-to-end routes is
not required. However, GR is sensitive to the factual error of location information
[7]. In greedy forwarding, an operation to select the next hop is quite distinct. Here
the neighbor, who is located away from the sender or source that takes up the
position as the next hop. If the node moves away from the coverage area of sender,
it will leads to the transmission failure. A famous Geographic Routing
(GR) protocol is GPSR. In this feedback of MAC-layer failure, offer the chance to
reroute the packet. When node mobility increases, the performance evaluation is
incapable under the simulation. Due to the nature of wireless medium broadcasting,
the transmission of a single packet leads to numerous reception. If this type of
transmission used as backup, then the strength of the routing protocol considered as
enhanced.
In opportunistic routing, the concept of multi-cast routing has already demon-
strated. However, most probably link-state topology DB is used to select and
ensures higher preferences for the forwarding candidates or relay nodes. The
periodic network-wide measurement is required to acquire the loss rates of inter
node and it is impossible because of the dynamic nature of MNs [7]. So far, in these
protocols, the batching tends to delay the data packets and not preferred for delay
sensitive applications [8, 9]. Presently, the location aided opportunistic routing
guided to forward the packets directly by using location information but it’s
designed as of other static mesh networks and aimed to provide the efficient
throughput. However, opportunistic forwarding fails to investigate the robustness of
the network for transmission of data packets [6, 10]. The proposed novel Efficient
Position-based Opportunistic Routing (EPOR) protocol deals the forwarding can-
didates by using the MAC interception for caching the packet that has been received
[7]. If the best forwarder not forwards the packet in an allocated time slot, a then
suboptimal candidate will successfully collects/receives and forward the packets
without any interruption to the data transmission. Thus, EPOR also ensures the
robustness by exploiting per packet basics through multi-path accessing.
2 Routing Algorithm
1. Greedy Perimeter Source Routing (GPSR)
MAC-layer failure feedback: As used in DSR [3], we the data packet exceeds
the limitation of retransmission tries then DSR receives the notification from the
802.11 MAC layer. It excludes the congestive collapse that indicates the
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4. recipient out of the frequency range [6, 10]. If the retry goes beyond the limit,
then it attains the failure of transmission. By using, the MAC- layer failure
feedback may convey the failure state as earlier as possible to the GPSR,
otherwise it carries the task through the neighbor’s expiration timeout interval
(4:5B).
Interface queue traversal: Regarding the MAC- layer feedback, the implemen-
tation expresses the strong result. While an IEEE 802.11 interface continuously
retransmits the data packets at the packets head of its queue. The head-of-line
block normally waits to receive the link-level acknowledgement from the
recipient. This head-of-line block used to reduce the offered transmits cycle of
an interface [8]. In this situation, notification regards the retransmit retry makes
queue of the packet to traverse for the interface and clears out all the failed
transmission recipients addresses [11]. Then it passes all these packets to the
routing protocol for retransmission or re-forwarding to another next hop.
While receiving greedy mode data packet for forwarding, a node looks its
neighbor table for capturing the geographically located closest neighbor to the
desired packet’s destination. If the neighbor is closer to the destination, then the
greedy mode packet forwards the packet to the closest node. Suppose, no
neighbor is closer, then the node marks the packet under the perimeter mode [9].
However, most probably link-state topology DB is used to select and ensures
higher preferences for the forwarding candidates or relay nodes. The periodic
network-wide measurement is required to acquire the loss rates of inter node [9].
It is impossible because of the dynamic nature of MNs. So far, in these pro-
tocols, the batching tends to delay the data packets and not preferred for delay
sensitive applications.
2. Ad Hoc on Demand Multicast Distance Vector Routing (AOMDV)
AOMDV’s many characteristics were shares with AODV. The technique based
on the distance vector routing algorithm, uses an approach as hop-by-hop
routing. Furthermore, AOMDV finds the retransmission routes using a route
discovery procedure [12]. The difference between AOMDV and AODV is
estimates by the discovering the number of routes that establishes in each of the
nodes route discovery to attain the desired destination.
In terms of AOMDV, it broadcast the Route Request (RREQ) from source to
destination. It establishes the multiple reverse paths both at destination node as
well as at intermediate nodes. The reverse path configuration from source to
destination and intermediate node to destination makes multiple forward paths.
The intermediate nodes reverse the path with an alternative path and it is useful
in reducing the frequency of the route discovery. The depth of the AOMDV
protocol ensures the discovery of multiple paths that are disjoint and loop free
[13] and uses a flood-based route discovery, to finds the paths efficiently.
However, it does not involve the special control to the packets [10]. In fact,
AOMDV and AODV cause the overhead due to the extra RREPs and RERRs
for discovery of multipath that harms to maintain in routing control packets (i.e.,
RREQs, RREPs, and RERRs).
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5. 3. Efficient Position-Based Opportunistic Routing
An Efficient Position-based Opportunistic Routing (EPOR) mechanism which
can be organized without any of the complex [14] modification to MAC pro-
tocol and meanwhile achieves the multiple candidate reception without dropping
the additional benefits of collision avoidance [6, 10] that was provided by IEEE
802.11. The scheme of Virtual Destination-based Void Handling (VDVH)
exhibits the advantages of greedy forwarding and opportunistic routing can
achieve the transmission while handling communication voids.
In this paper, EPOR focuses both overhead as well as usage of bandwidth due to
the duplicate relay candidates for transmission also look the utilization of buffer
usage. Through performance analysis, EPOR achieves gain ratio by little
overhead cost due to the proper selection of forwarding candidates among the
area and limitation schemes [9, 14].
A node needs to satisfy the following conditions to locate in the forwarding
region/area:
1. Should achieve the positive progress to reach the destination [7]
2. The distance between the source and next hop relay node should not go
beyond the half of the transmission range (R) (i.e., R/2).
Therefore, all forwarding candidates can hear each other. The key point of
EPOR states that, if an intermediate node receives the same ID (i.e., same source
address and sequence number) [15], then it will drop that packet from the best
forwarder packet list.
4. Opportunistic Forwarding
The design of EPOR depends upon opportunistic forwarding and geographic
routing. The MNs aware their own location and their neighboring positions
directly. The MNs neighborhood location informations are register in the
routing table of each of the MN. Exchange of information uses one–hop beacon
in the packets header [16]. To achieve the desired destination position the
location registration and look up services maps the nodes addresses to locate the
desired destination nodes position as in [6, 10]. In this scenario, location ser-
vices schemes are more reliable and efficient. For example, when the destination
replies to the requested source, destination transmits the reply by acquiring the
long-range radio with low bit rate. It can implement by periodic beacon. When a
source needs to transmit a packet, first, it should collect the destination location
and its address attached with the packet header. Due to the movement of des-
tination node, the true destination diverge the multi hop path and packet may
drop even if the packet delivers to the neighborhood destination. To handle such
issues, optimal check introduced for the destination node. At each stage of
hopping, the nodes that forward the data packet will check its neighbor list to
check whether the destination node presents within its own transmission range.
If so, the packet will transmit directly to the destination node, likewise location
prediction scheme for destination as mentioned in [4].
In opportunistic forwarding, in order to require packet from various candidates,
either it must adapt to any one of the following, an integration of routing or an
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6. IP broadcast and MAC protocol. Foremost, it prone to MAC collision due to the
absence of collision avoidance that supports to broadcast the packets in IEEE
802.11. Later it need a complex coordinates and it is quite difficult to implement.
In EPOR, the similar scheme which was uses in MAC multicast mode explained
in [15]. Here the packet transfer in unicast mode in IP layer (the best
forwarder/relay node which makes the leading positive progress for attaining the
destination and it is set as next hop) and receives the multiple candidates
reception using MAC interception. The significance of RTS/ACK/DATA/CTS
reduces the collision. Due to the medium reservation, all other nodes within the
ranges of sender’s node may overhear (eavesdrop) on the successful transmis-
sion of the packet as a higher probability in ratio.
3 Simulation Results
The performance of EPOR has evaluated and compared with AOMDV and GPSR
in NS-2 simulation. It simulates under a variety of network topologies. The GPSR is
a representative geographic routing protocol and AOMDV is a famous multi-path
routing protocol. The parameters utilized in the NS-2 simulation listed in Table 1.
The model uses the random waypoint for node’s mobility without pause. The speed
of the network mobility degree may vary from minimum to maximum. The mini-
mum speed of the node is set to 1 m/s. The following metrics used for comparison
of performance:
• Packet delivery ratio: The ratio of the number of data packets received at the
destination(s) to the number of data packets sent by the source(s).
• End-to-end delay: The average and median end-to-end delay evaluated together
with the cumulative distribution function of the delay.
• Path length: The average end-to-end path length meant (number of hops) for
successful packet delivery.
• Packet forwarding times per hop (FTH): The average number of time, a packet
has forward from the perspective routing layer to deliver a packet over each hop.
Table 1 Simulation
parameters
Parameters Values
MAC protocol IEEE 802.11
Propagation model Two-ray ground
Transmission range 250 m
Mobility model Random Way Point (RWP)
Traffic type Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
Packet size 512 MB
Number of nodes 100
Simulation time 200 ls
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7. • Packet forwarding times per packet (FTP): The average number of times a
packet has forward from the perspective routing layer to deliver a packet from
the source to the destination.
A. Simulation Parameters
As by Fig. 1, we can observe that in the face of communication hole, GPSR’s void
handling mechanism fails to work well [17] (Figs. 2, 3 and 4).
Even when the maximum node speed is 5 m/s, only 90% of the data packets get
delivered which is relatively poor compared to the other protocols [18]. As for
EPOR, the improvement is not so significant since in the current implementation,
VDVH is unable to deal with all cases of communication voids.
However, when the node mobility is high (e.g., when the maximum node speed
is larger than 25 m/s), EPOR still performs better.
With respect to the path length, the end-to-end hops of GPSR are the largest due
to the usage of perimeter mode, while EPOR still achieves the shortest path length
[19].
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
5 10 15 20 25 30
GPSR
EPOR
AOMDV
Fig. 1 Packet delivery ratio
for communication hole
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
5 10 15 20 25 30
GPSR
AOMDV
EPOR
Fig. 2 Average end-to-end
delay for communication hole
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8. As for the result of FTH and FTP (Figs. 5 and 6), EPOR outperforms the other
two as usual while GPSR performs worst indicating the perimeter mode of GPSR is
incapable of working well in mobile environment (Figs. 7 and 8)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5 10 15 20 25 30
EPOR
AOMDV
GPSR
Fig. 3 Median end-to-end
delay for communication hole
0
5
10
15
20
25
5 10 15 20 25 30
GPSR
AOMDV
EPOR
Fig. 4 Path length for
communication hole
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
5 10 15 20 25 30
EPOR
AOMDV
GPSR
Fig. 5 Packet forwarding
times per hop for
communication hole
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9. 4 Conclusion and Future Work
In MANET, we face the problems of frequent changes in network topology that
leads to break the link would either lose the packets. Thus a novel routing protocol
EPOR which takes the advantage of geographic routing and broadcast nature of
wireless medium and ensures the better performance in case of link break. Through
simulation, EPOR confirm the effectiveness and efficiency under high PDR.
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
EPOR
GPSR
AOMDV
Fig. 6 Packet forwarding
times per packet (FTP) for
communication hole
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
EPOR
GPSR
AOMDV
Fig. 7 Packet delivery ratio
for multi fold
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
EPOR
GPSR
AOMDV
Fig. 8 CDF for single flow
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10. By involving the forwarding candidates in EPOR, the property of backup is useful
in the case of broken route and it will recover in timely manner. An overhead also
addressed by opportunistic routing. This method can combined with a new proposal
of multiple sources with a single destination in a parallel processing method [10],
which will make the PDR to be increase in an energy efficient way by combined
with load balancing.
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