06 07 ob perception - motivation (1) - copy

All Rights Reserved to Kardan University 2014
Kardan.edu.afInamullah Maseed
Perception

What Is Perception?
• Perception is a process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.
However, what we perceive can be substantially
different from objective reality.
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Factors That Influence Perception
• A number of factors operate to shape and
sometimes distort perception. These factors
can reside:
– in the perceiver;
– in the object, or target, being perceived; or
– in the context of the situation in which the
perception is made
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Factors That Influence Perception
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Attribution Theory
• Attribution theory tries to explain the ways in which we
judge people differently.
• It suggests that when we observe an individual’s
behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was
internally or externally caused.
• That determination, however, depends largely on three
factors:
1. distinctiveness,
2. consensus, and
3. consistency.
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• Internally caused behaviors are those we
believe to be under the personal control of
the individual.
• Externally caused behavior is what we
imagine the situation forced the individual to
do.
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Attribution Theory

• Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual
displays different behaviors in different situations.
Is the employee who arrives late today also one
who regularly “blows off” commitments?
• If everyone who faces a similar situation responds
in the same way, we can say the behavior shows
consensus.
• Finally, an observer looks for consistency in a
person’s actions. Does the person respond the
same way over time?
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Attribution Theory

Attribution Theory
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Attribution Theory
• Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to
overestimate the dispositional causes of behavior
and underestimate the environmental causes when
others fail is called the fundamental attribution error.
• Self-Serving Bias: On the other hand if you failed in a
situation, you would be more likely to blame factors
in the situation for your failure. This reflects a self-
serving bias.
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Common Shortcuts in Judging Others
• Selective Perception: Why you’re more likely to
notice cars like your own, or why a boss may
reprimand some people and not others doing the
same thing.
• Halo Effect: When we draw a general impression
about an individual on the basis of a single
characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or
appearance, a halo effect is operating.
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Common Shortcuts in Judging Others
• Contrast Effects: We don’t evaluate a person in
isolation. Our reaction is influenced by other persons
we have recently encountered.
– A candidate is likely to receive a more favorable evaluation
if preceded by mediocre applicants and a less favorable
evaluation if preceded by strong applicants.
• Stereotyping When we judge someone on the basis
of our perception of the group to which he or she
belongs, we are using the shortcut called
stereotyping .
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Applications of Shortcuts in
Organizations
• Employment Interview
• Performance Expectations
– The terms self-fulfilling prophecy and Pygmalion effect
describe how an individual’s behavior is determined by
others’ expectations. If a manager expects big things from
her people, they’re not likely to let her down. Similarly, if
she expects only minimal performance, they’ll likely meet
those low expectations. Expectations become reality.
• Performance Evaluation
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Motivation

Definition
• Motivation is the processes that account for
an individual’s intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
– Intensity describes how hard a person tries.
– direction that benefits the organization.
– persistence measures how long a person can
maintain effort.
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Early Theories of Motivation
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Lower-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological
and safety needs.
Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied
internally; social, esteem,
and self-actualization
needs.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

 Self-transcendence — a transegoic
level that emphasizes visionary
intuition, and altruism.
 Self-actualization — know exactly
who you are, where you are going,
and what you want to accomplish.
 Aesthetic — to do things not simply
for the outcome but because it's the
reason you are here on earth — at
peace, more curious about the inner
workings of all things.
 Cognitive — to be free of the good
opinion of others — learning for
learning alone, contribute
knowledge.
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Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
 Theory X (A boss)
 People have an inherent dislike for
work and will avoid it whenever
possible.
 People must be coerced, controlled,
directed, or threatened with
punishment in order to get them to
achieve the organizational
objectives.
 People prefer to be directed, do not
want responsibility, and have little
or no ambition.
 People seek security above all else.
 Theory Y (A leader)
 Work is as natural as play and
rest.
 People will exercise self-direction
if they are committed to the
objectives.
 People learn to accept and seek
responsibility.
 Creativity, ingenuity, and
imagination are widely distributed
among the population. People are
capable of using these abilities to
solve an organizational problem.
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Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
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McClelland’s theory of needs: It looks at three needs:
•Need for achievement (nAch) is the drive to excel, to
achieve in relationship to a set of standards.
•Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others
behave in a way they would not have otherwise.
•Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and
close interpersonal relationships.
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Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• Self-Determination Theory proposes that people
prefer to feel they have control over their
actions, so anything that makes a previously
freely chosen activity enjoyable will feel more
like an obligation if free will is absent. This theory
includes:
– cognitive evaluation theory , which hypothesizes
that extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest
in a task. When people are paid for work, it feels
less like something they want to do and more like
something they have to do.
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• Goal-Setting Theory Research on goal-setting
theory in fact reveals impressive effects of
goal specificity, challenge, and feedback on
performance.
• Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals
increase performance; that difficult goals,
when accepted, result in higher performance
than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to
higher performance than does no feedback.
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• Implementing Goal-Setting:
– Management By Objectives (MBO) , which
emphasizes participatively set goals that are
tangible, verifiable, and measurable.
– Four ingredients are common to MBO programs:
1. Goal specificity,
2. Participation in decision making (including the
setting of goals or objectives),
3. Explicit time period, and
4. Performance feedback.
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Management By Objectives (MBO)

• Self-Efficacy Theory (also known as social cognitive
theory or social learning theory ) refers to an
individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the
more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.
So, in difficult situations, people with low self-
efficacy are more likely to lessen their effort or give
up altogether, while those with high self-efficacy will
try harder to master the challenge.
• How can managers help their employees achieve high levels of self-
efficacy? By bringing goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory together.
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Equity Theory/Organizational Justice
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of
others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
Choices for dealing with inequity are:
1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpaid).
2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can
increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower
quality).
3. Distort perceptions of self (“I used to think I worked at a moderate
pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else.”).
4. Distort perceptions of others (“Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I
thought.”).
5. Choose a different referent (“I may not make as much as my
brother-in-law, but I’m doing a lot better than my Dad did when he
was my age.”).
6. Leave the field (quit the job).
1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpaid).
2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can
increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower
quality).
3. Distort perceptions of self (“I used to think I worked at a moderate
pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else.”).
4. Distort perceptions of others (“Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I
thought.”).
5. Choose a different referent (“I may not make as much as my
brother-in-law, but I’m doing a lot better than my Dad did when he
was my age.”).
6. Leave the field (quit the job).

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Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends
on the strength of an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of
that outcome to the individual.

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 Valence (Reward) = the amount of desire for a goal (What is
the reward?)
 Expectancy (Performance) = the strength of belief that
work related effort will result in the completion of the task
(How hard will I have to work to reach the goal?)
 Instrumentality (Belief) = the belief that the reward will be
received once the task is completed (Will they notice the
effort I put forth?)
Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality = Motivation

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