6. Chapter Six.pptx, Chapter Seven.pptx, Chapter Eight.pptx

Software Project Management
Chapter Six
Human Resource Management
Sem. I – 2023
SITE-AAiT
1

Making the most effective use of the people involved with a project.
Processes include:
Human resource planning: Identifying and documenting
project roles, responsibilities, and reporting relationships.
Acquiring the project team: Getting the needed personnel
assigned to and working on the project.
Developing the project team: Building individual and group
skills to enhance project performance.
Managing the project team: Tracking team member
performance, motivating team members, providing timely
feedback, resolving issues and conflicts, and coordinating
changes to help enhance project performance.
Human Resource Management
2
Overview

What is Motivation?
Motivation
 Individual forces that account for the direction, level, and
persistence of a person’s effort expended at work.
Direction - an individual’s choice when presented with a
number of possible alternatives.
Level - the amount of effort a person puts forth.
Persistence - the length of time a person sticks with a given
action.
Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-
directed behavior.
Motivation Across Cultures
 Motivation theories are largely developed from a North
American perspective.
 They are subject to cultural limitations and contingencies.
3

What is Motivation?
Types of motivation theories
 Content theories
Focus on individual needs – that is, physiological or psychological
deficiencies that we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate.
 Process theories
Focus on the thoughts, or cognitive processes, that take place within the
minds of people and that influence their behavior.
Groups of Motivational Theories
Internal : Suggest that variables within the individual give rise to motivation
and behavior
Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
Process : Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the individual and
the environment
Example: Expectancy theory
External : Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior
Example: Two-factor theory
4

Max Weber—work contributes to salvation; Protestant
work ethic
Sigmund Freud—delve into the unconscious mind to better
understand a person’s motives and needs
Adam Smith—“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in
the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other
people
Frederick Taylor—founder of scientific management;
emphasized cooperation between management and labor to
enlarge company profits
Early Philosophers of Motivational Theories
5

What can We Learn From the Needs Theories of
Motivation?
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Identifies five levels of individual needs.
Assumes that some needs are more important than others and
must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators.
6

Higher-order and lower-order needs in
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
7

Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
8

Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA Theory Y - a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals motivated
by higher order needs
Theory X - a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals motivated
by lower order needs
Motivational Theories X & Y
9

Naturally indolent
Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer
to be led
Inherently self-centered and indifferent to
organizational needs
Naturally resistant to change
Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X
10

Experiences in organizations result in passive and
resistant behaviors; they are not inherent
Motivation, development potential, capacity for
assuming responsibility, readiness to direct behavior
toward organizational goals are present in people
Management’s task—arrange conditions and operational
methods so people can achieve their own goals by
directing efforts to organizational goals
McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y
11

Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA
Existence
Relatedness
Growth
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
12

Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation?
Existence:
Desire for physiological
and material well-being
Relatedness:
Desire for satisfying
interpersonal
relationships
Growth:
Desire for continued
personal growth and
development.
13

What can We Learn From the Needs Theories
of Motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Need for achievement (nAch).
The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to
solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
Need for affiliation (nAff).
The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with others.
Need for power (nPower).
The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or
to be responsible for others.
14

Need for Achievement - A manifest (easily perceived) need
that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition,
challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties
McClelland’s Need Theory
15

Need for Power - A manifest (easily perceived) need that
concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others,
influence others, change people or events, and make a
difference in life
16

Need for Affiliation - A manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and
maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other
people.
17

Self-actualization
Maslow Alderfer McClelland
Higher
Order
Needs
Lower
Order
Needs
Esteem
self
interpersonal
Safety & Security
interpersonal
physical
Need for
Achievement
Need for
Power
Relatedness Need for
Affiliation
Existence
Growth
Belongingness
(social & love)
Physiological
Motivational Need Theory
18

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Two-Factor Theory
Identifies two different factors as primary causes of job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
Also known as the motivator-hygiene theory.
Hygiene factors
Sources of job dissatisfaction associated with job context.
Job dissatisfaction results when hygiene factors are poor.
Improving the hygiene factors only decreases job
dissatisfaction.
Motivator factors
Sources of job satisfaction related to job content.
Presence or absence of motivators is the key link to satisfaction.
19

Hygiene Factor - work condition related to dissatisfaction
caused by discomfort or pain
maintenance factor
contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to the satisfaction
of the need for psychological growth
job enrichment
leads to superior performance & effort
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
20

Sources of dissatisfaction and satisfaction in Herzberg’s
two-factor theory.
5-21
• Policies
• Salary
• Supervision
• Work conditions
• Relationships
• Status
Hygiene
Factors
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Meaningful work
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
Motivator
Factors
21

High M Low M
High H high motivation
few complaints
low motivation
few complaints
Low H high motivation
many complaints
low motivation
many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
Motivation-Hygiene Combinations
22

Individual—Organizational Exchange Relationship
 Organizational goals
 Departmental objectives
 Job tasks
 Physiological needs
 Security needs
 Physical needs
 Company status
 Benefits
 Income
 Developmental potential
 Employee knowledge
 Employee skills and
abilities
Individual
Organization
Demands
Contributions
23

Adams’s Theory of Inequity
Inequity - The situation in which a person perceives he or she is
receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or
she is receiving
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
Person Comparison other
Motivational Theory of Social Exchange
24

What is the Equity Theory of Motivation?
Equity Theory Any perceived inequity
becomes a motivating state of mind.
 People are motivated to behave in ways
that restore equity in situations.
 Foundation of equity is social
comparison.
Individual Outcomes
Individual Efforts
Others’ Outcomes
Others’ Efforts
>
<

Equity theory prediction:
Negative inequity.
Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than
others in proportion to work inputs.
Positive inequity.
Individual feels he/she has received relatively more
than others in proportion to work inputs.
26

Alter the person’s outcomes
Alter the person’s inputs
Alter the comparison other’s outputs
Alter the comparison other’s inputs
Change who is used as a comparison other
Rationalize the inequity
Leave the organizational situation
Strategies for Resolution of Inequity

Steps for managing equity dynamics
Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in the
workplace.
Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given.
Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given.
Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the
reward is based.
Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in the
situation
28

Organizational justice
How fair and equitable people view the practices of
their workplace.
Distributive justice - degree to which all people
are treated the same under a policy,
regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age or
any other demographic characteristic.
Interactional justice - degree to which the
people affected by a decision are treated with
dignity and respect.
Procedural justice, degree to which the rules and
procedures specified by policies are properly
followed. 29

What is the Expectancy Theory of Motivation?
A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of
expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).
Expectancy
effort will yield acceptable performance
belief that effort leads to performance
Instrumentality
performance will be rewarded
belief that performance is related to rewards
Valence
value of the rewards is highly positive
value or importance placed on a particular reward
30

What is the Expectancy Theory of Motivation?
Motivational implications of expectancy theory.
Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy, instrumentality,
or valence approach zero.
Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are high
and valence is strongly positive.
Improve
Expectancy
Employees must
possess the skills for
task
Provide necessary
training
Assign reasonable tasks
and goals
Improve
Instrumentality
Tie reward to
performance
Observe and recognize
Deliver as promised
Improve
Valence
Assure that reward is
meaningful
Give rewards that have
value
31

Performance Reward
Effort
Effort
Perceived effort–
performance
probability
Perceived
value of reward
Perceived
performance–
reward probability
“If I work hard,
will I get the job
done?”
“What rewards
will I get when
the job is well done?”
“What rewards
do I value?”
Expectancy Model of Motivation
32

Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
33

Causes of Motivational Problems
Belief that effort will not result in performance
Belief that performance will not result in rewards
The value a person places on, or the preference a person
has for, certain rewards
Moral Maturity - the measure of a person’s cognitive moral
development
Morally mature people
behave and act based on
universal ethical
principles.
Morally immature people
behave and act based on
egocentric motivations.
34

What is the Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation?
Goal setting
The process of developing,
negotiating, and formalizing
the targets or objectives that a
person is responsible for
accomplishing.
35

Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance
than are less difficult ones.
Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance
than vague or very general ones.
Task feedback is likely to motivate people toward higher
performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance
goals.
Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people
have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to
accomplish.
Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance
when they are accepted by the individual, and there is
commitment to them.
36

Management by Objectives
Process of joint goal setting
between a supervisor and a
subordinate.
37
How the management by objectives process works

What is Ouchi’s Theory Z ?
Chief Architect - Dr. William Ouchi (with some of McGregor's X and
Y theories entwined)
Japanese Model developed during the economic boom of the 80's
A management/leadership theory
It is concerned with the culture of the whole school and not just the
leadership of the school.
More interested in how the school organization is put together and how
it is managed.
Theory Z is a managerial design of a humanistic approach of
employee/employer relationships. Its culture exhibits values, beliefs, and
objectives that emphasis the complete socialization of members to achieve
group goals. The following are example of factors that might be included
in the development of the Theory Z approach to school dynamics.
The chart below provides a list of foundational principles and concepts of
Theory Z that principals might find helpful in managing their
organization.
Dr. Ouchi lists these six items as major components of Theory Z as
applied to schools.

Theory Z
in
Schools
Trust
Subtlety
Intimacy
Motivation
Through
Self-Interest
Equitable
Reward
System
Quality
Education
Skills
Training
Shared
Control
and
Decision
Making
Major Components of Theory Z
as applied to Schools

Summary of Characteristics of the Theory Z
* Long-term employment and job security
* Collective responsibility
* Implicit, informal control with explicit, formalized measures
* Collective decision-making
* Slow evaluation and promotion
* Moderately specialized careers
•Concern for a total person, including their family
Principals need to know that:
Theory Z recommends the organization be committed to its people
rather than demand commitment from its people.
Focuses on employee loyalty.
It recommends assigning more authority to frontline workers namely
teachers.

Theory Z requires:
Teamwork, training, and extensive collection and analysis of data.
Can foster such things in education as team teaching, site based
management, cooperative learning, and outcome based education.
Focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by
providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-being of the
employee, both on and off the job.
According to Dr. William Ouchi, its leading proponent, Theory Z
management tends to promote stable employment, high
productivity, and high employee morale and satisfaction.

1. Authority: the legitimate hierarchical right to issue orders
2. Assignment: the project manager's perceived ability to influence a worker's
later work assignments
3. Budget: the project manager's perceived ability to authorize others' use of
discretionary funds
4. Promotion: the ability to improve a worker's position
5. Money: the ability to increase a worker's pay and benefits
6. Penalty: the project manager's ability to cause punishment
7. Work challenge: the ability to assign work that capitalizes on a worker's
enjoyment of doing a particular task
8. Expertise: the project manager's perceived special knowledge that others
deem important
9. Friendship: the ability to establish friendly personal relationships between
the project manager and others
Thamhain and Wilemon’s Ways to Have Influence on Projects
42

Projects are more likely to succeed when project managers influence with
expertise
work challenge
Projects are more likely to fail when project managers rely too heavily on
authority
money
penalty
Ways to Influence that Help and Hurt Projects
43
Power is the potential ability to influence behavior to get people to do
things they would not otherwise do
Types of power include
Coercive
Legitimate
Expert
Reward
Referent
Power

Project managers can apply Covey’s 7 habits to improve effectiveness on
projects
Be proactive
Begin with the end in mind
Put first things first
Think win/win
Seek first to understand, then to be understood
Synergize
Sharpen the saw
Covey and Improving Effectiveness
44
Good project managers are empathic listeners - they listen with the
intent to understand
Before you can communicate with others, you have to have rapport – a
relation of harmony, conformity, accord, or affinity
Mirroring is the matching of certain behaviors of the other person, a
technique to help establish rapport
IT professionals need to develop empathic listening and other people
skills to improve relationships with users and other stakeholders
Empathic Listening and Rapport

Leadership - what is it?
“Influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards
the achievement of group goals”
Analysis of leadership effectiveness
1. Define and measure some criteria of organizational
effectiveness
2. Assess leadership style of organization’s leaders
3. Attempt to correlate organizational performance with
leadership styles

Team Leader Responsibilities
Team leader responsibilities include, but are not limited to:
Preparing of the meeting agenda, to be published and distributed at
least a day in advance.
Sending a reminder of the meeting time and place to all team members.
Ensuring that the meeting remains focused on the agenda.
Encouraging participation by all team members.
Establishing an environment that fosters creativity where team
members are respected,
take risks and feel safe expressing their ideas.
Furthering the overall goals and objectives of the team. Procedures

How important is a leader?
In most cases, people will perform at about 60% of their
potential with no leadership at all
Thus, an additional 40% can be realized if effective
leadership is available
40%
60%
capability
utilization
Contribution due to leadership
ability of manager
Default contribution due to
need for a job, peer pressure, etc.

The 2 dimensions of management
1. Economic or productivity-based
 “concern for production”
2. Employee condition and morale
 “concern for people”
These can also be thought of as:
1. Initiating structure (get it done)
2. Consideration (human condition)

Styles of leadership
concern for production 
concern for
people
Laissez-faire
Leader
(L)
Benevolent
Leader
(Y)
Autocratic
Leader
(X)
Team
Leader
(Z)
9
9
1

Which style of leadership works best?
Team Leader (Z) has proven to be the most effective in general .
Requires a “balancing act” of getting things done and having a
genuine concern for people
Certain special situations may require other styles (i.e. making the
atom bomb)
Theory “L”: Laissez-faire leader
Uninvolved - “leave them alone”
Sees main role as passer of information
Lets others make decisions
Basically abdicates responsibility for team or unit

Theory “X”: Autocratic leader
Lacks flexibility
Controlling and demanding
“carrot and stick” approach
Focused solely on productivity
Theory “Y”: Benevolent leader
Very people oriented; encouraging
Organizes around people
Can be paternalistic
“country club” atmosphere: non-competitive

Theory “Z”: Team leader
Balances production and people issues
Builds a working team of employees
Team approach: involves subordinates
Organization is a vehicle for carrying out plans
Results of leadership styles
1. Theory L: “missing management”
 Very low productivity
2. Theory X: “my way or the highway”
 Job stress; low satisfaction; unions form
3. Theory Y: “country club”
 Low achievement; good people leave
4. Theory Z: “good manager”
 High productivity, cooperation, low turnover, employee
commitment

The main goal of team development is to help people work together more
effectively to improve project performance
It takes teamwork to successfully complete most projects
Tuckman Model of Team Development
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Adjourning
Training
Training can help people understand themselves, each other, and how to
work better in teams
Team building activities include
physical challenges
psychological preference indicator tools
Developing the Project Team
58

Social Styles
61
People on opposite
corners
(drivers and amiable,
analytical and
expressive)
may have difficulties
getting along

Also uses a four-dimensional model of normal behavior
Dominance
Influence
Steadiness
Compliance
People in opposite quadrants can have problems understanding each
other
DISC Profiles
62
Team-based reward and recognition systems can promote teamwork
Focus on rewarding teams for achieving specific goals
Allow time for team members to mentor and help each other to meet
project goals and develop human resources
Reward and Recognition Systems

Project managers must lead their teams in performing various project
activities
After assessing team performance and related information, the project
manager must decide
if changes should be requested to the project
if corrective or preventive actions should be recommended
if updates are needed to the project management plan or organizational
process assets.
Managing the Project Team
65
Observation and conversation
Project performance appraisals
Interpersonal skills
Conflict management
Tools and Techniques for Managing Project Teams

Patrick Lencioni, author of several books on teams, says
that “Teamwork remains the one sustainable
competitive advantage that has been large untapped”*
The five dysfunctions of teams are
1. Absence of trust
2. Fear of conflict
3. Lack of commitment
4. Avoidance of accountability
5. Inattention to results
Five Dysfunctions of a Team
66

Be patient and kind with your team
Fix the problem instead of blaming people
Establish regular, effective meetings
Allow time for teams to go through the basic team-
building stages
Limit the size of work teams to three to seven members
Plan some social activities to help project team members
and other stakeholders get to know each other better
Stress team identity
Nurture team members and encourage them to help each
other
Take additional actions to work with virtual team
members
General Advice on Teams
67

68
Who are you?
What’s your name?
Where are-you from?
What are-you doing here?
Team Building Activities
Why Team Building?
We want to move from individual to collective accomplishment.
We want to provide a unique social dimension that enhanced work.
We want to have fun together (work, performance, parties, celebrations).
We want to motivate, challenge, reward and support individuals who want
to be part of something larger.

69
Who
Team
Building
Five W’s
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Who
Team
Building
Five W’s
Who
Team
Building
Five W’s
Who

Why team work
Because we are facing a situation requiring the real-time combination of
multiple :
Skills
Experiences and
Judgments
70
We build a team by …
Focusing on performance and team basics as opposed to trying “to
become a team”.
Performance = any recognized accomplishment
Performance: The results of activities of an organization or investment
over a given period of time.
« An ounce of performance is worth pounds of promises. »

71
what is a team?
A small number of people
With complementary skills
Who are committed to
a common purpose
Common performance goals
and common approach
For which they hold themselves mutually
accountable.

72
A common purpose
“A joint creation that will exists only because of the team’s
collaborative effort.”
That they own and can translate into specific actionable goals.
That give identity, pride and responsibility.
Common performance goals
Specific and measurable goals
That will allow the team to achieve small and big wins as it
pursues its purpose.

73
Complementary skills
Technical or functional expertise
Problem solving and decision making skills
Interpersonal skills
Common approach
How they will work together to accomplish their purpose:
Common approach
Economic aspects
Administrative aspects
Social aspects

74
Who should be part of the team?
Selection of team members based on skills and skills potential.
People motivated by the common purpose.
People ready for hard work and good fun.
People who want to be part of something larger than themselves.
People who want to change the way they do things.
People who really do want to make a difference.
When team building is the thing?
When we are facing significant performance challenges.
We need multiple skills, judgments and experiences.
We have a clear mission:
Recommend things
To make or to do things
To run or manage things

75
Where?
In the office
Out of the office
In the field
First meeting
Following meetings
Conflict management
Last meeting
Celebration

76
And How?
Team Building: 8 common approaches
Team Building through Communication and Activities
1. Establish urgency and direction
2. Focus on skills and skills potential
3. Pay attention to first meetings and action
4. Set clear rules of behaviour
5. Set and seize upon a few immediate results
6. Challenge the team with fresh facts and info
7. Spend time together
8. Exploit the power of positive feedback, recognition
and collective rewards

77
Quick Team Building activities for busy Coordinators
Step 1, Before: Start with a clear objective in mind. Some examples:
Communication: Getting to know each other.
Cooperation: Working together as a team.
Coping: Dealing with change and conflict.
Creativity: Solving problems together.
Team work: Appreciating and supporting each other.
Step 2, Before: Select an activity that’s good for your team.
Step 3, Before: Prepare the activity.
Step 4, During: Explain the activity, rules and expectations and check for
understanding before beginning.
Step 5, During: Run the activity.
Step 6, During: Debrief the activity.
Step 7, After: Reinforce the learning back on the job.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator GUIDELINES
A person’s psychological type should be regarded as a working hypothesis.
Everyone uses every preference. We favor, however, one preference over
the other on each of the four scales.
MBTI scores should not be over interpreted. High scores do not indicate
greater skill, magnitude, or use of a preference. Scores indicate clarity of
choice.
Psychological type can explain some human behavior—not all.
Type should not be used as an excuse for doing or not doing something.
Avoid stereotyping someone on the basis of his or her type.
Type Theory
Based on the work of Carl Jung
Researched normal differences between healthy people
Jung concluded that differences in behavior result from inborn tendencies
to use your mind in different ways.
As we act on these tendencies, we develop patterns of behavior.

Type helps us to understand…
Where you focus your attention and energy?
How you acquire or gather information?
How you make decisions or judgments?
How you relate to the outer world?
What are Preferences?
Sign your name on the line as you normally do.
Sign your name again, but this time use your other hand.
Everyone has a natural preference for one of the two opposites on each of
the four MBTI continuums.
When we use our preferred methods we are at our best and feel most
competent.

How to interpret your results?
Your type consists of four letters that represent your four preferences.
The bars on the graph illustrate the clarity of your MBTI preferences.
The longer bar suggests you are quite sure that you prefer that pole.
The shorter bar suggests that you are less sure about your preference for
that pole.
EXTRAVERSION INTROVERSION
Direct energy outward toward
people and things
Orientation – after thinkers
Work Environment
Action-oriented
Prefer to be around others
Many interests
Direct energy inward toward
ideas and concepts
Orientation – fore thinkers
Work Environment
Quiet and concentrated
Prefer to be alone
Interests have depth

SENSING INTUITION
Focus on five senses experience)
Details, practicality, reality
Work Environment
Prefer learned skills
Pay attention to details
Make few factual errors
Focus on the possibilities(sixth
sense)
Patterns and expectations
Work Environment
Prefer adding new skills
Looks at the big picture
Patient with complexity
THINKING FEELING
Focus – logic of a situation,
truth and principles
Work Environment – brief and
businesslike
Contributions – intellectual
criticism, solutions to
problems
Focus – human values and
needs, people and harmony
Work Environment – friendly
and personal
Contributions – loyal support,
care and concern for others

JUDGING PERCEPTION
Attitude – decisive, planful,
self-regimented, purposeful
Work Environment – focus on
completing tasks, makes
decisions quickly
Attitude – curious,
spontaneous, flexible,
adaptable, tolerant
Work Environment – focus on
starting tasks, postpones
decisions
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Helps you identify your unique gifts
Helps you understand yourself
Motivations
Natural strengths
Potential areas for growth
Helps you understand and appreciate people who differ from you
Helps you make the best of your college experience
Helps you begin the career exploration process

Responsibility Assignment Matrix
83
Stakeholders roles in RAM

A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) is a matrix that maps the work of
the project, as described in the WBS, to the people responsible for performing
the work, as described in the OBS.
Can be created in different ways to meet unique project needs
Sample RAM
84

85
Organizational chart of large IT project

86
Work Definition & Assignment Process

Sample RACI Chart
87
R = responsibility
A = accountability, only one A per task
C = consultation
I = informed
Note that some people reverse the definitions of responsible and accountable.

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