Alternative Strategy for a Safe Rechargeable Battery

1. A
Seminar Report
On
Alternative Strategy for a Safe Rechargeable Battery
submitted
in partial fulfilment
for the award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology
in Department of Mechanical Engineering
Supervisor: Submitted By:
Dr Manu Augustine Anop Mundel
Professor 15ESKME022
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan, Jaipur
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
2018-19

2. i
Candidate’s Declaration
I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the Seminar, titled
“Alternative Strategy for a Safe Rechargeable Battery” in partial fulfilment for the award
of Degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in Department of Mechanical Engineering, and
submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Swami Keshvanand Institute of
Technology, Management & Gramothan, Jaipur is a record of my own investigations carried
under the Guidance of Dr Manu Augustine, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan, Jaipur .
I have not submitted the matter presented in this report anywhere for the award of any other
Degree.
(Name and Signature of Candidate)
Anop Mundel
15ESKME022
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,
Management & Gramothan, Jaipur (Raj.)
Counter Signed by
Dr Manu Augustine
Professor
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,
Management & Gramothan, Jaipur (Raj.)

3. ii
Swami Keshvanand Institute
of Technology, Management & Gramothan, Jaipur
Department of Mechanical Engineering
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Anop Mundel, student of B.Tech VIII Semester (Mechanical
Engineering), has submitted the seminar report titled “Alternative Strategy for a Safe
Rechargeable Battery”, carried under my guidance.
It is submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology
(Mechanical Engineering) of Rajasthan Technical University, Kota.
Date:
Seminar Faculty Supervisor
Mr. Dinesh Kumar Sharma Dr Manu Augustine
(Assistant Professor) Professor
Mr. Ankit Agarwal
(Associate Professor)

4. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This seminar Report titled
“Alternative Strategy for a Safe Rechargeable Battery”
has been prepared under the guidance of Dr Manu Augustine, Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering. I express my gratitude to him for his critical and valuable
comments, constant inspiration and for taking the personal interest in my seminar.
I have taken efforts in this seminar. However, it would not have been possible without the
kind support and help of many individuals and the Department of Mechanical Engineering. I
would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
I extend my sincere thanks towards Prof. N. C. Bhandari (Head, Mechanical Engineering
Department) for his kind support throughout my span of degree. I would like to express my
gratitude to all members of the Department of Mechanical Engineering for their kind co-
operation and encouragement which helped me in the completion of this seminar report.
My thanks and appreciation also goes to my colleagues who helped me in all possible ways.
Date:
Anop Mundel
15ESKME022
B.Tech IV Year
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,
Management & Gramothan, Jaipur (Raj.)

5. iv
Table of Contents
Candidate’s Declaration i
Certificate ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figure v
Abstract 1
Chapter 1: Introduction 2
1.1 History of batteries (non-rechargeable) 2
1.2 History of Rechargeable Batteries 4
Chapter 2: General review of popular rechargeable batteries 9
2.1 Lead-acid battery 9
2.2 Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery 9
2.3 Sodium-sulphur (Na-S) Battery 10
2.4 Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) Battery 10
2.5 Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery 11
Chapter 3: Problems with Li-ion Battery 12
3.1 Types of dendrites formation 12
3.2 Dendrites formation steps in Li-ion battery 13
Chapter 4: Alternative strategy for a safe rechargeable battery 15
4.1 Graphene Battery 15
4.2 Sodium-ion Battery 15
4.3 Lithium sulphur Battery 16
4.4 solid-state battery 16
4.5 Gold Nanowire Battery 17
Conclusion 18
Reference 19

6. v
List of Figure
Figure 1 Daniell cell 2
Figure 2 Porous pot cell 3
Figure 3 Gravity cell 3
Figure 4 Poggendorff cell 4
Figure 5 Lead-acid cell 4
Figure 6 leclanché cell 5
Figure 7 Zinc-carbon cell 5
Figure 8 Ni-Cd cell 6
Figure 9 NiMH Battery 7
Figure 10 Lithium-ion Battery 8
Figure 11 Lithium-polymer Battery 8
Figure 12 Na-S Battery 10
Figure 13 The result of an Avestor battery fire in an AT&T system 12
Figure 14 Lithium dendrites being formed on the electrodeposition of lithium 12
Figure 15 Dendrites in Li-ion battery 13
Figure 16 Dendrites formation process 13
Figure 17 Solid State Battery 16
Figure 18 Gold Nanowire with gel electrolyte 17

7. 1
ABSTRACT
The global energy paradigm is rapidly transforming from fossil fuels to sustainable energy
resources, including solar, wind, and geothermal energies. However, power production from
these energy resources is not always coincident with energy demand. Therefore, the
development of large-scale energy storage systems that resolve this discrepancy is vitally
important. So, technology shift towards storage batteries is imminent.
In this seminar report, various types of batteries available in the market and the recent
developments in the battery technology from the perspective of safety, high capacity, more
cycle life, high power density and non-toxicity have been taken up for discussion.

8. 2
Chapter 1: Introduction
The word “battery” comes from the Old French word baterie, it's meaning “action of
beating,” relating to a group of cannons in battle. In the endeavour to find an energy storage
device, scientists in the 1700s adopted the term “battery” to represent multiple
electrochemical cells connected together[1].
A battery consists of a number of electrochemical cells connected in series or parallel, which
produce electricity with a desired voltage from an electrochemical reaction. Each cell
contains two electrodes (one anode and one cathode) with an electrolyte which can be at
solid, liquid or ropy/viscous states[2]. The battery is a feeble vessel that is slow to fill, holds
limited energy, runs for a time like a wind-up toy, fades and eventually becomes a nuisance.
Batteries can be widely used in different applications, such as power quality, energy
management, ride-through power and transportation systems.
1.1 History of batteries (non-rechargeable) [3]
1) Daniell cell
In 1836 a British chemist John Frederic Daniell invented Daniell cell, which consisted
of a copper pot filled with a copper sulphate solution, in which was immersed an
unglazed earthenware container filled with sulphuric acid and a zinc electrode. The
earthenware barrier was porous, which allowed ions to pass through but kept the
solutions from mixing. It had an operating voltage of roughly 1.1 volts. Figure 1
shows a systematic diagram of a Daniell cell.
Figure 1 Daniell cell
2) Bird’s cell
A version of the Daniell cell was invented in 1837 by the Guy's hospital physician
Golding Bird who used plaster of Paris barrier to keep the solutions separate.
3) Porous pot cell
The porous pot version of the Daniell cell was invented by John Dancer in 1838. It
consists of a central zinc anode dipped into a porous earthenware pot containing a

9. 3
zinc sulphate solution as shown in figure 2. The porous pot is immersed in a solution
of copper sulphate contained in a copper can, which acts as the cell's cathode.
Figure 2 Porous pot cell
4) Gravity cell
In the 1860s, a Frenchman Callaud invented a variant of the Daniell cell called the
gravity cell. This simpler version dispensed with the porous barrier. This reduced the
internal resistance of the system and, thus, the battery yielded a stronger current.
The gravity cell consisted of a glass jar, in which a copper cathode sat on the bottom
and a zinc anode was suspended beneath the rim. Copper sulphate crystals would be
scattered around the cathode and then the jar would be filled with distilled water. As
the current was drawn, a layer of zinc sulphate solution would form at the top around
the anode. This top layer was kept separate from the bottom copper sulphate layer by
its lower density and by the polarity of the cell. Figure 3 shows a systematic diagram
of a typical gravity cell.
The zinc sulphate layer was clear in contrast to the deep blue copper sulphate layer,
which allowed a technician to measure the battery life with a glance. On the other
hand, this setup meant the battery could be used only in a stationary appliance, else
the solutions would mix or spill. Another disadvantage was that a current had to be
continually drawn to keep the two solutions from mixing by diffusion, so it was
unsuitable for intermittent use.
Figure 3 Gravity cell

10. 4
5) Poggendorff cell
The German scientist Johann Christian Poggendorff overcame the problems with
separating the electrolyte and the depolariser using a porous earthenware pot in 1842.
In the Poggendorff cell, also called Grenet Cell due to the works of Eugene Grenet
around 1859, the electrolyte was dilute sulphuric acid and the depolariser was
chromic acid. The two acids were physically mixed together eliminating the porous
pot. The positive electrode (cathode) was two carbon plates, with a zinc plate
(negative or anode) positioned between them as shown in figure 4. Because of the
tendency of the acid mixture to react with the zinc, a mechanism was provided to raise
the zinc electrode clear of the acids.
Figure 4 Poggendorff cell
1.2 History of Rechargeable Batteries [3]
1) Lead-acid Battery:-
In 1859, Gaston Planté invented the lead-acid battery, the first rechargeable battery
that could be recharged by passing a reverse current through it. Figure 5 shows the
first Lead-acid cell invented by Gaston Planté. A lead-acid cell consists of a lead
anode and a lead dioxide cathode immersed in sulphuric acid. Both electrodes react
with the acid to produce lead sulphate, but the reaction at the lead anode releases
electrons whilst the reaction at the lead dioxide consumes them, thus producing a
current. These chemical reactions can be reversed by passing a reverse current
through the battery, thereby recharging it. The lead-acid cell was the first "secondary"
cell.
Figure 5 Lead-acid cell
2) Leclanché cell:-
In 1866, Georges Leclanché invented a battery that consisted of a zinc anode and a
manganese dioxide cathode wrapped in a porous material, dipped in a jar of

11. 5
ammonium chloride solution. The manganese dioxide cathode had a little carbon
mixed into it, which improved conductivity and absorption. Figure 6 shows a
systematic diagram of a typical Leclanché cell. It provided a voltage of 1.4 volts.
Figure 6 leclanché cell
3) Zinc-carbon cell:-
This was the dry cell. In 1886, Carl Gassner invented a variant of the Leclanché cell,
which came to be known as the dry cell because it did not have a free liquid
electrolyte. Instead, the ammonium chloride was mixed with plaster of Paris to create
a paste, with a small amount of zinc chloride added in to extend the shelf life. The
manganese dioxide cathode was dipped in this paste, and both were sealed in a zinc
shell, which also acted as the anode. Figure 7 shows a systematic diagram of a typical
Zinc-carbon cell.
Figure 7 Zinc-carbon cell

12. 6
4) Ni-Cd Battery:-
In 1899, a Swedish scientist Waldemar Jungner invented the nickel-cadmium battery,
a rechargeable battery that had nickel and cadmium electrodes in a potassium
hydroxide solution; the first battery to use an alkaline electrolyte. The first models
were robust and had significantly better energy density than lead-acid batteries, but
were much more expensive. Figure 8 shows a systematic diagram of a typical Ni-Cd
cell.
Figure 8 Ni-Cd cell
5) Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery:-
Research on nickel-metal-hydride started in 1967, but the first consumer-grade
nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) for smaller applications appeared on the market
in 1989. The NiMH technology was the battery used in the first generation of hybrid
electric cars, such as the Toyota Prius. It is highly reliable, cycling several thousand
times.[4] The NiMH battery is more environmental friendly than Ni-Cd battery
because cadmium is toxic in nature[5]. Figure 9 shows a systematic diagram of a
typical NiMH cell.

13. 7
Figure 9 NiMH Battery
6) Lithium battery:-
Lithium is the metal with the lowest density and with the greatest electrochemical
potential and energy-to-weight ratio. The low atomic weight and small size of its ions
also speed its diffusion, suggesting that it would make an ideal material for batteries.
Experimentation with lithium batteries began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis. Three volt
lithium primary cells such as the CR123A type and three volt button cells are widely
used, especially in cameras and very small devices.
7) Lithium-ion battery:-
In 1980 an American chemist, John B. Goodenough, discovered the LiCoO2 cathode
(positive lead) and a Moroccan research scientist, Rachid Yazami, discovered the
graphite anode (negative lead) with the solid electrolyte. In 1981, Japanese chemists
Tokio Yamabe and Shizukuni Yata discovered a novel nano-carbonaceous-PAS
(polyacene) and found that it was very effective for the anode in the conventional
liquid electrolyte. This led a research team managed by Akira Yoshino of Asahi
Chemical, Japan, to build the first lithium-ion battery prototype in 1985, a
rechargeable and more stable version of the lithium battery; Sony commercialized the
lithium-ion battery in 1991. Figure 10 shows a systematic diagram of Li-ion cell and
flow of ions during charging and discharging process.

14. 8
Figure 10 Lithium-ion Battery
8) Lithium-Polymer battery:-
In 1997, the lithium-polymer battery was released by Sony and Asahi Kasei. Figure
11 shows a schematic diagram of a typical Lithium-Polymer battery. These batteries
hold their electrolyte in a solid polymer composite instead of in a liquid solvent, and
the electrodes and separators are laminated to each other. The latter difference allows
the battery to be wrapped in a flexible wrapping instead of in a rigid metal casing,
which means such batteries can be specifically shaped to fit a particular device. This
advantage has favoured lithium polymer batteries in the design of portable electronic
devices such as mobile phones and personal digital assistants, and of radio-controlled
aircraft, as such batteries allow for more flexible and compact design. They generally
have a lower energy density than normal lithium-ion batteries.
Figure 11 Lithium-polymer Battery

15. 9
Chapter 2: General review of popular rechargeable batteries
A battery can convert energy bi-directionally between electrical and chemical energy, is
called a rechargeable battery. During discharging, the electrochemical reactions occur at
anodes and cathodes simultaneously. To the external circuit, the electrons are provided from
the anodes and collected at the cathodes. During charging, the reverse process takes place and
the battery is recharged by applying an external voltage to the two electrodes[2].
List of popular rechargeable batteries:-
1. Lead-acid battery
2. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery
3. Sodium–sulphur (Na-S) battery
4. Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery
5. Nickel–Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery
2.1 Lead-acid battery:-
The most widely used rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery. The cathode is made
of PbO2, the anode is made of Pb, and the electrolyte is sulphuric acid. Lead–acid
batteries have fast response times, small daily self-discharge rates (<0.3%), relatively
high cycle efficiencies (63-90%) and low capital costs (50–600 $/kW h). Lead–acid
batteries can be used in stationary devices as back-up power supplies for data and
telecommunication systems, and energy management applications. However, there are
still limited installations around the world, mainly due to their relatively low cycling
times (up to 2000), energy density (50–90W h/L) and specific energy (25–50 W h/kg).In
addition, they may perform poorly at low temperatures so a thermal management system
is normally required, which increases the cost[2].
2.2 Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery:-
In a Li-ion battery, the cathode is made of a lithium metal oxide, such as LiCoO2 and
LiMO2, and the anode is made of graphitic carbon. The electrolyte is normally a non-
aqueous organic liquid containing dissolved lithium salts, such as LiClO4. The Li-ion
battery is considered as a good candidate for applications where the response time, small
dimension and/or weight of equipment are important (milliseconds response time, 1500–
10,000 W/L, 75–200W h/kg, 150–2000 W/kg). Li-ion batteries also have high cycle
efficiencies, up to 97%. The main drawbacks are that the cycle Depth of Discharge (DoD)
can affect the Li-ion battery’s lifetime and the battery pack usually requires an onboard
computer to manage its operation, which increases its overall cost. Li-ion batteries are
now applied in Hybrid and full Electric Vehicles (HEVs and EVs), which use large-
format cells and packs with capacities of 15–20 kW h for HEVs and up to 50 kW h for
EVs[2].

16. 10
2.3 Sodium-sulphur (Na-S) Battery:-
The commercialization of the sodium–sulphur battery took around 40 years, after
extensive research efforts mainly in Europe, with NGK of Japan taking the battery to
market. This battery operates at over 300O
C, with the sodium and sulphur reactants being
in the molten state; they are separated by the beta alumina ceramic in the form of tubes or
plates. Such batteries are typically being used for stationary load levelling applications,
and are up to 200 MW in power. Figure 13 shows a systematic diagram of a typical Na-S
cell and battery packing of the Na-S battery.
Figure 12 Na-S Battery
A variant of the Na-S battery is the Zebra cell, developed in South Africa. In this cell, the
cathode comprises, for example, a mixture of sodium chloride and nickel, which on
charging deposits sodium at the anode and nickel chloride at the cathode. This cell has the
advantage of not handling sodium metal during the manufacturing process. It is presently
being actively commercialized by General Electric (GE) in Schnectady, New York, for
stationary applications[4].
2.4 Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) Battery:-
A Ni-Cd battery is made up of a positive with nickel oxyhydroxide as the active material
and a negative electrode composed of metallic cadmium. These are separated by a nylon
divider. The electrolyte is aqueous potassium hydroxide. During the discharging process,
nickel oxyhydroxide combines with water and produces nickel hydroxide and a hydroxide
ion. Cadmium hydroxide is produced at the negative electrode. To charge the battery the
process can be reversed.
However, during charging, oxygen can be produced at the positive electrode and
hydrogen can be produced at the negative electrode. As a result, some venting and water
addition is required, but much less than required for a Lead Acid battery. There are two
Ni-Cd battery designs: vented and sealed. Sealed Ni-Cd batteries are the common,
everyday rechargeable batteries used in a remote control, lamp etc. No gases are released
from these batteries unless a fault occurs. Vented Ni-Cd batteries have the same operating

17. 11
principles as sealed ones, but gas is released if overcharging or rapid discharging occurs.
The oxygen and hydrogen are released through a low-pressure release valve making the
battery safer, lighter, more economical, and more robust than sealed Ni-Cd batteries.
Disadvantages:-
Like lead-acid batteries, the life of Ni-Cd batteries can be greatly reduced due to DoD and
rapid charge/discharge cycles. However, Ni-Cd batteries suffer from memory effects and
also lose more energy during due to self-discharge standby than lead-acid batteries, with
an estimated 2% to 5% of their charge lost per month at room temperature in comparison
to 1% per month for lead-acid batteries. Also, the environmental effects of Ni-Cd
batteries have become a widespread concern in recent years as cadmium is a toxic
material. This creates a number of problems for disposing of the batteries[6].
2.5 Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery:-
In NiMH battery, the negative electrode is hydrogen, but the hydrogen is absorbed into a
metal alloy [7]. NiMH batteries provide incremental improvements in capacity over the
NiCad at the expense of reduced cycle life and lower load current.
The advantage of NiMH batteries over Ni-Cd batteries:-
NiMH battery has 30% more capacity than a standard Ni-Cd, less prone to memory than
the Ni-Cd, periodic exercise cycles need to be done less often, fewer toxic metals. The
NiMH is currently labelled "environmentally friendly."
Disadvantages of NiMH batteries:-
1. Number of cycles: The NiMH is rated for only 500 charge/discharge cycles. The
battery's longevity is directly related to the depth of discharge.
2. Fast charge: The NiMH generates considerably more heat during charge and
requires a more complex algorithm for full-charge detection than the Ni-Cd if
temperature sensing is not available. The NiMH also cannot accept as fast a
charge as the Ni-Cd; its charge time is typically double that of the Ni-Cd.
3. Discharge current: The recommended discharge current of the NiMH is
considerably less than that of the Ni-Cd. For applications requiring high power or
a pulsed load, such as on GSM digital cellular phones, portable transceivers and
power tools, the more rugged Ni-Cd is the recommended choice.
4. Self-discharge: Both NiMH and Ni-Cd are affected by reasonably high self-
discharge. The Ni-Cd loses about 10% of its capacity in the first 24 hours, after
which the self-discharge settles to about 10% per month. The self-discharge of the
NiMH is one-and-a-half to two times higher than that of the Ni-Cd.
5. Capacity: The NiMH delivers about 30% more capacity than a Ni-Cd of the same
size. The comparison is made with the standard, rather than new ultra-
high capacity Ni-Cd.

18. 12
Chapter 3: Problems with Li-ion Battery
In the recent market, the most popular battery is Li-ion Battery. But it has many problems
like overheating, short lifetime, flammability, toxicity, low performance at high temperature,
low power density[8] and expensive casing.
The below shown figure 14 shows the Avestor’s batteries that used a lithium anode, a
vanadium oxide cathode, and a polymeric membrane; the result of such a fire.
Figure 13: The result of an Avestor battery fire in an AT&T system.[4]
But the dendrites are the major problem with Li-ion batteries. They are enemy of Li-ion
batteries. Dendrites are thin, finger-like projections of the metal (as shown in figure 15) that
starts to build from one electrode and have the potential to extend all the way across the
electrolyte material and reach the other electrode. If these dendrites reach the other electrode
over time, it could short-circuit the battery and cause permanent damage to the battery and
the device equipping it [9].
Figure 14 Lithium dendrites being formed on the electrodeposition of lithium[4]
3.1 Types of dendrites formation:-
Generally, Dendrites are three types:-
1. True Dendrites
2. Whisker growth
3. Surface growth

19. 13
Bai’s team has identified three distinct types of dendrites, or growth modes, in lithium metal
anodes, depending upon the level of current used for charging. “If you use very high current,
it builds at the tip to produce a treelike structure,” Bai said. These are the classical dendrites
with the spiky appearance that are best known. In this case, the whiskers grow from the
trunks of tree-like structures (giving dendrites their name).
Below a certain threshold level of current, however, the dendrite whiskers grow directly on
the metal surface and the “tree trunks” are no longer present. Within those two limits, there
exists the dynamic transition from whiskers to dendrites, which Bai calls “surface
growth.” Here, the lithium plates into a variety of shapes on the lithium metal surface. The
growths were found to be related to the competing reactions in the region between the liquid
electrolyte and the metal deposits [10]. Figure 16 shows how the dendrites grow from Li
anode and make a short circuit path with cathode through crossing separator.
Figure 15 Dendrites in Li-ion battery
3.2 Dendrites formation steps in Li-ion battery:-
Dendrites formation occur during the charging process of Li-ion battery. It involves several
steps like:-
i. Li deposition
ii. Li-dendrite formation
iii. Li-dendrite growth with the cycling of charging
iv. Li dendrites penetrate through a separator
v. Li-dendrite micro-shorting and more dead lithium formation
Figure 16 Dendrites formation process
The dendrites formation process is a slow process occurring during the charging process as
shown in figure 17. In this, Li is starting deposit on the anode of the battery. After some cycle

20. 14
of charging, the dendrites are start form. Then, after the number of cycle, the dendrites are
started growing and it penetrates the separator. After many cycles, it creates micro-shorting
between anode and cathode of the battery and it exploded.

21. 15
Chapter 4: Alternative strategy for a safe rechargeable battery
For the safe rechargeable battery, the dendrites problem must be solved. In this vector,
researchers try to solve the dendrites problem, improve battery life and fast charging of the
battery. Some alternative strategy for a safe rechargeable battery are:-
i. Graphene Battery
ii. Sodium-ion Battery
iii. Lithium sulphur Battery
iv. Solid state Battery
v. Gold nanowire Battery
4.1 Graphene Battery:-
Discovered at the University of Manchester in 2004, graphene - which consists of thin
flakes of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal structure - was quickly hailed as a wonder
material. It is strong and light, with a high surface area, and it’s an excellent conductor of
both heat and electricity. But, the promised graphene revolution is yet to materialise.
Graphene, a sheet of carbon atoms bound together in a honeycomb lattice pattern, is
hugely recognized as a “wonder material” due to the myriad of astonishing attributes it
holds. It is a potent conductor of electrical and thermal energy, extremely lightweight
chemically inert, and flexible with a large surface area. It is also considered eco-friendly
and sustainable, with unlimited possibilities for numerous applications. It could create
smartphones that charge in seconds, and cars that can refuel while they’re stopped at a set
of traffic lights.
The market for graphene batteries is predicted to reach $115 million by 2022, but it has
huge potential beyond that as the technology improves, and a number of companies have
attracted significant interest in their work.
These include Chinese company “Dongxu Optoelectronics”, which announced a graphene
super-capacitor with the capacity of a typical laptop battery that could charge up in 15
minutes, instead of a few hours. Barcelona-based startup Earthdas has used graphene to
create super-capacitors for electric bicycles and motorcycles, which can be charged 12
times faster than lithium-ion batteries.
4.2 Sodium-ion Battery:-
Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are rechargeable and are widely used in laptops, mobile
phones and in hybrid and fully electric vehicles. The electric vehicle is a crucial
technology for fighting pollution in cities and realising an era of clean sustainable
transport. However, lithium is expensive and resources are unevenly distributed across
the planet. Large amounts of drinking water are used in lithium extraction and extraction
techniques are becoming more energy intensive as lithium demand rises -- an 'own goal'
in terms of sustainability.

22. 16
With the ever-increasing demand for electric cars, the need for reliable rechargeable
batteries is rising dramatically, so there is keen interest in finding a charge carrier other
than lithium that is cheap and easily accessible.
Sodium is inexpensive and can be found in seawater so is virtually limitless. However,
sodium is a larger ion than lithium, so it is not possible to simply "swap" it for lithium in
current technologies. For example, unlike lithium, sodium will not fit between the carbon
layers of the ubiquitous LIB anode, graphite [11].
High energy density sodium ion batteries using Cobalt oxide plating are providing better
performance than lithium-ion batteries.
Sodium ion batteries (SIBs) have emerged as the most direct route to developing more
cost-effective and more sustainably produced metal-ion batteries due to their similarity in
chemistry to Lithium-ion batteries LIBs and the 1000× greater natural abundance of
sodium in comparison to lithium.
4.3 Lithium sulphur Battery:-
The lithium–sulphur battery (Li–S battery) is a type of rechargeable battery, notable for
its high specific energy. The low atomic weight of lithium and moderate weight of
sulphur means that Li–S batteries are relatively light (about the density of water).
The life of lithium-sulphur batteries can be extended from ~100 to >200 charging cycles,
according to researchers from Purdue University. This compares with ~600 cycles for
common laptop Li-ion cells and far more from specialist types.
When the charge is applied to Li-S cells, lithium ions migrate to the sulphur and lithium
sulphide is produced.
A by-product of this reaction, ‘polysulphide’, tend to cross back over to the lithium side
and prevent the migration of lithium ions to sulphur, according to Purdue – decreasing
charge capacity and lifespan.
4.4 solid-state battery:-
In a solid-state battery, both the positive and negative electrodes and the electrolyte
between them are solid pieces of metal, alloy, or some other synthetic material as shown
in figure 17.
Figure 17 Solid State Battery
Solid-state batteries promise a few distinct advantages over their liquid-filled cousins:
better battery life, faster charging times, and safer experience, no dendrites formation.
Solid-state batteries compress the anode, cathode, and electrolyte into three flat layers

23. 17
instead of suspending the electrodes in a liquid electrolyte. That means you can make
them smaller—or at least, flatter—while holding as much energy as a larger liquid-based
battery. So, if you replaced the lithium-ion or lithium-polymer battery in your phone or
laptop with a solid-state battery the same size, it would get a much longer charge.
Alternatively, you can make a device that holds the same charge much smaller or thinner.
Solid-state batteries are also safer, since there’s no toxic, flammable liquid to spill, and
they don’t output as much heat as conventional rechargeable batteries. When applied to
batteries that power current electronics or even electric cars, they might recharge much
faster, too ions could move much more quickly from the cathode to the anode.
According to the latest research, a solid-state battery could outperform conventional
rechargeable batteries by 500% or more in terms of capacity, and charge up in a tenth of
the time.
4.5 Gold Nanowire Battery:-
In 2016 researchers at the University of California Irvine have cracked nanowire batteries
that can withstand plenty of recharging. The result could be future batteries that don't die.
Nanowires, a thousand times thinner than a human hair, pose a great possibility for future
batteries. But they've always broken down when recharging.
The gold nanowires are strengthened by a manganese dioxide shell encased in a
Plexiglas-like gel electrolyte. The combination is reliable and resistant to failure. In fact,
these batteries were tested recharging over 200,000 times in three months and showed no
degradation at all. Figure 18 shows a microscopic view of a gold nanowire with gel
electrolyte.
Figure 18 Gold Nanowire with gel electrolyte

24. 18
Conclusion
In this seminar report, the development process of non-rechargeable batteries and
rechargeable batteries was discussed. Then, some popular rechargeable batteries like lead-
acid battery, Li-ion battery, Sodium-sulphur battery, Lithium sulphur battery, Nickel-
cadmium battery, Nickel-metal Hydride battery were taken up for discussion. In the
discussions, the main focus was on the relative advantages, drawbacks and applications of
these batteries.
Further, the major drawbacks of the market’s most popular battery viz. Li-ion battery was
discussed. The problem of dendrite formation in such batteries was brought into attention.
Finally, some recent developments in battery technology from the perspective of safety, high
capacity, increased cycle life, high power density and non-toxicity were elaborated.

25. 19
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