Introduction Defining intelligence Theories of intelligence Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Flynn effect Intelligence testing WAIS WISC

1. P R E P A R E D B Y : D E E P A N W I T A R O Y
M P H I L T R A I N E E I N C L I N I C A L P S Y C H O L O G Y
1 S T Y E A R ( 2 0 1 5 - 2 0 1 7 )

2. OBJECTIVES
• Introduction
• Defining Intelligence
• Theories of intelligence
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
• Flynn effect
• Intelligence testing:
• The Binet Scale
• The Stanford Binet Scale
• Weschler Scale: WAIS and WISC
• Conclusion

3. INTRODUCTION
To be labeled as being ‘intelligent’ imparts positive feelings,
encourages self esteem and a sense of worth. Yet, what is
Intelligence? This has been the focus of theories, definitions
and philosophies dating as far back as Plato (428BC); yet
most presumably, dating prior to this historical figure, might be
due to the fact that humankind is itself intelligent. One way to
seek understanding of intelligence is simply to define what it
is.

4. DEFINING INTELLIGENCE
Some of the classical definitions of Intelligence:
• Spearman (1904): A general ability which involves mainly
the education of relations and correlates.
• Binet & Simon (1905): The ability to judge well, to
understand well, to reason well.
• Terman (1916): The capacity to form concepts and grasp
their significance.
• Thurstone (1921): The capacity to inhibit instinctive
adjustments, flexibly imagine different responses, and
realize modified instinctive adjustments into overt behavior.

5. …CONTINUATION
• Wechsler (1939): The aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with the environment.
• Sternberg (1985): The mental capacity to automatize
information processing and to emit contextually appropriate
behavior in response to novelty; intelligence also included
meta components, performance components, and
knowledge-acquisition components.
• Gardner (1986): The ability or skill to solve problems or to
fashion products which are valued within one or more cultural
settings.

6. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
As with the plethora of definitions of intelligence, there are
numerous theories of intelligence. There are different
theories, none of which agree with each other. Every
approach to thinking comes up with its own different
perspective and assumptions, often contradicting at least
one earlier theories.

7. TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE
• It was developed by British psychologist Charles
Spearman in 1904. He proposed that intellectual abilities
were comprised of two factors, general ability or common
ability known as ‘G’ factor and group of specific abilities
known as ‘S’ factor.
• ‘G’ factor is the universal inborn ability, this involves a
person’s ability to perform complex mental work, such as
problem solving.
• A second factor, ‘S’, represents a person’s specific mental
abilities, such as verbal or math skills.
• An individual’s tested intelligence reflects the amount of g
plus the magnitude of the various s factors.

8. …CONTINUATION
• Spearman believed that every individual had a certain
level of general intelligence.
• Many critics argue that ‘G’ does not measure many other
kinds of mental abilities such as motor, musical, or
creative abilities.
• These critics argue that intelligence cannot be reduced
to just ‘G’ and expressed by a single IQ score.

9. CATTELL’S VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE
• In the 1960s American psychologists Raymond Cattell and
John Horn applied new methods of factor analysis and
concluded there are two kinds of general intelligence: Fluid
Intelligence ( gf ) and Crystalized Intelligence ( gc ).
• The Cattell-Horn theory of fluid and crystalized intelligence
suggests that intelligence is composed of a number of
different abilities that interact and work together to produce
overall individual intelligence.
• Thus, both fluid and crystallized intelligence are correlated
with each other and most IQ tests attempt to measure both
varieties. For example, WAIS measures fluid intelligence on
the performance scale and crystallized intelligence on the
verbal scale. The overall IQ score is based on a combination
of these two scales.

10. • Fluid intelligence refers to cognitive functions associated
with general reasoning and problem-solving, and is often
described as executive function, or working memory
capacity. It represents the biological basis of intelligence.
• Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, refers to
cognitive functions associated with previously acquired
knowledge in long-term store. The knowledge and skills are
obtained through learning and experience.
• Fluid intelligence, typically peaks in young adulthood and
then steadily declines. The decline may be related to local
atrophy of the brain in the right cerebellum (Lee et al., 2005).
Other researchers have suggested that a lack of practice
along with age-related changes in the brain may contribute
to the decline (Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields, 2006).
• Crystallized intelligence typically increases gradually, stays
relatively stable across most of adulthood, and then begins
to decline after age 65 (Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields,
2006).

12. Different IQ tests measure fluid intelligence and crystallized
intelligence to varying extents – the Raven’s Progressive
Matrices Test, for example, predominantly measures fluid
intelligence, while the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS) disproportionately measures crystallized intelligence.
An analysis of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC) found that about 1/3 of the subtests measure
crystallized intelligence, an additional 1/4 measure knowledge
and reading/writing skills, while only 7% directly measure fluid
intelligence, with perhaps another 10% measuring skills that
have a fluid intelligence component.

13. INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ)
Terman adopted a convenient index that was suggested by
the German psychologist William Stern. The index is the
intelligence quotient, commonly known by its initials IQ. It
expresses intelligence as a ratio of mental age to
chronological age:
IQ= Mental Age (MA)__ X 100
Chronological Age(CA)
The 100 is used as a multiplier to remove the decimal point
and to make the IQ have a value of 100 when MA equals CA.
The distribution of IQ follows a Normal Distribution curve,
most cases cluster around a mid-value, tapering off to a few
at both extremes.

14. • The adjectives commonly used to describe the various IQ
levels are given in the table below:
• The modern IQ is merely a test score adjusted for the age of
the person being tested. It is therefore no longer a “quotient”
at all, but the expression IQ persists because of its familiarity
and convenience.
Category IQ Impairment
Profound Less than 20 100%
Severe 20-35 90%
Moderate 35-49 75%
Mild 50-69 50%
Borderline 70-79
Dull Normal 80-89
Average 90-109
Bright Normal 110-119
Superior 120-129
Very Superior >130

15. FLYNN EFFECT
• The Flynn effect was coined by R. Herrnstein and C. Murray.
• The Flynn effect is the substantial and long-sustained increase in
both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores measured in
many parts of the world from roughly 1930 to the present day.
• Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a
trend toward smaller families, better education, greater
environmental complexity, and Heterosis (the occurrence of
offspring with more pronounced phenotypical traits from mixing
the genes of its parents) (Mingroni, 2004).
• Thus, IQ tests are updated periodically. For example,
Wechsler tests have been updated periodically, and the average
rate of increase seems to be about three IQ points per decade in
the United States.

16. Concurrent Development Of Theories Of
Intelligence And Intelligence Tests
• The lack of agreement on a theory and structure of
intelligence is the major reason for so many intelligence tests.
• IQ tests are excellent predictors of academic achievement
(Gregory, 1999; Neisser et al., 1996), occupational
performance ( Hunter & Schmidt, 1996; Wagner, 1997) and
are sensitive to the presence of neuropsychological deficit
(Kaplan, 2000; Lezak, 1995).
• Comprehensive tests such as the WISC–IV, WAIS–IV, WJ-III,
and Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales—Fifth Edition (Roid,
2003) share a number of similar or overlapping components;
all yield a second-order general factor that is at least
moderately correlated across these different tests.

17. INTELLIGENCE TESTING

18. THE BINET SCALE
• The Binet scales have been the oldest of the modern tests
of intelligence.
• The very first test, developed by Binet, used some key
principles:
• Age differentiation: Binet looked for tasks that could be
successfully completed by 2/3 to 3/4 of children in a
particular age group, a smaller proportion of younger
children, and a larger proportion of older children.
• General mental ability: conceived of intelligence as a
unitary factor, not separate mental abilities, which can be
represented by a single score.

19. 1905 AND 1908 BINET SCALES
1905 Scale
• 30 tasks or tests of
increasing difficulty.
• No measuring unit- just
categorized people very
roughly into
• Idiots (most severe
intellectual impairment)
• Imbeciles (moderate
impairment)
• Morons (mildest
impairment)
1908 Scale
• Grouped items according
to age
• Could now describe
individual in terms of
‘mental age’ based on
his/her performance of
individuals in a specific age
group

20. STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE
SCALE
1916 Stanford Binet
• Developed by L.M. Terman.
• First time the concept of
‘Intelligent Quotient’ was
used:
1937 Stanford Binet
• Extended age range
• Increased mental age
range
• Improved scoring
standards
• Improved standardization
sample
• Problems: standard
deviation of IQ scores
differed across age levels.

21. STANFORD BINET INTELLIGENCE
SCALE
1960 Scale:
• Adopted Deviation IQ
• Simply used standardization sample to transform all scores so that
the mean would be 100 and the standard deviation would be 16
(15 on the most recent edition)
• The corrected for differences in variability across ages
1972 Scale:
Thorndike re-standardized Stanford-Binet Scale on 2100 individuals.
1986 Scale:
Thorndike, Hagen and Sattler restructured Stanford-Binet into 15
subsets.
2003 Scale:
Roid introduced five factor of intelligence in Stanford Binet Scale 5,
such as fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-
spatial processing, and working memory.

22. WECHSLER’S VIEW ON INTELLIGENCE
David Wechsler (1896-1981) viewed intelligence as an effect
rather than a cause, and believed former assessments of
general intelligence to be too narrow. Instead, in Wechsler’s
opinion, single factor theories of intelligence- that is the 'one-
size-fits-all' model of theory-building- did a poor job of
describing the full range of intellectual abilities that human
beings displayed in their daily lives. Besides age and
experience, these theories also left out other important factors.
Some of these included emotion and the impact of the
environment in which people found themselves.

23. Wechsler has conceived intelligence as a multidimensional
construct, one that magnifies itself in many forms. He originally
defined intelligence as “the capacity of the individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with
his environment” (Wechsler, 1944). Wechsler explained that
intelligence is global because it characterizes the individual’s
behavior as a whole and is specific because it is composed of
elements or abilities that are qualitatively different.
He believed that intelligence should be measured by both
verbal and performance tasks, each measuring a different ability
and could be aggregated to form a general construct. The
subtests Wechsler selected and developed tap many different
mental abilities which together reflect an individual’s overall
ability. These subtests relate to behavior that is generally
considered intelligent in one way or another. None of these
subtests, however, by itself was designed to assess the entire
range of cognitive abilities.

24. WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE
SCALE (WAIS)
• The 1937 Stanford Binet Scale, in spite of its merits, was not
particularly well suited for work with adults. It was not
standardized on any individual over 18years of age in obtaining
the IQ. It used the same CA(chronological age) as the divisor
for all the individuals over 16years, instead of having separate
age norms.
• In describing the development of his first test, Wechsler wrote,
“Our aim was not to produce a set of brand new tests but to
select, from whatever source available, such a combination of
them as would meet the requirements of an effective adult
scale” (Wechsler, 1939).
• In fact, the content of Wechsler Scales was largely inspired by
earlier efforts such as the Binet Scales and the Army Alpha and
Beta tests (Frank, 1983).

25. • The first of the Wechsler tests, named the Wechsler
Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WBIS) was published in 1939.
In discussing the rationale for his new test, Wechsler (1941)
explained that existing instruments such as Stanford-Binet
were woefully inadequate for assessing adult intelligence.
The WBIS composed of subtests that could be found in
various other intelligence tests of the time, such as Robert
Yerkes’ army testing program and the Binet Simon Scale.
• The scale was revised in 1955 and the new version was
named as WAIS- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
• The scale retains the same format as in WBIS and many of
the items of the original scale but was standardized in a
much more careful fashion.
• A number of items were dropped from WBIS, many new
items were added, and changes were made to
administration and scoring rules.
• The age ranges from 16 to 64 years.

26. • WAIS is a point scale rather than a mental age scale. The
items are not grouped in terms of mental age. Points are
given for correct responses.
• The scale consisted of the following subtests, which fall into
two broad categories: Verbal Tests and Non-verbal
Performance Tests.
• There were 6 verbal tests and 5 performance tests, as listed
below.
• The scores of verbal IQ (VIQ) and performance IQ (PIQ) and
Full scale IQ (FIQ) can be obtained.
VERBAL SUBTESTS PERFORMANCE SUBTESTS
1. Information 1. Digit Symbol
2. Comprehension 2. Picture Completion
3. Arithmetic 3. Block Design
4. Similarities 4. Picture Arrangements
5. Digit Span 5. Object Assembly
6. Vocabulary

27. WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE
SCALE-REVISED (WAIS-R)
• The WAIS-R, a revised form of the WAIS, was released in
1981, it retained all 11 subtests from the first edition.
• A number of items were dropped, many new items were
added, and changes were made to administration and
scoring.
• WAIS-R consisted of SIX verbal and FIVE performance
subtests, same as in WAIS.
• This revision edition did not provide new validity data, but
used the data from the original WAIS; however new norms
were provided, carefully stratified.
• WAIS-R introduced larger age ranges and older age groups
(65-69 and 70-74) were more closely matched to the census
data than comparable groups in the WAIS-R.

28. WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE
SCALE- THIRD EDITION (WAIS-III)
• The WAIS-III, a subsequent revision of the WAIS and the
WAIS-R, was released in 1997. It provides scores for Verbal IQ,
Performance IQ, and Full Scale IQ, along with four secondary
indices (Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Perceptual
Organization, and Processing Speed)
• Verbal IQ (VIQ): included 7 tests and provided two sub
indexes; Verbal Comprehension and Working Memory.
• Performance IQ (PIQ): included 6 tests and it also provided
two sub indexes; Perceptual Organization and Processing
Speed.
• WAIS-III introduced 3 new subtests: Matrix Reasoning
(perceptual organization), Letter-Number Sequencing (working
memory) and Symbol Search (processing speed).

29. • Two new optional procedures, Digit Symbol- incident learning
and Digit Symbol- Copy, were also included.
Two tests; Picture Arrangement and Object Assembly were
not included in the indexes.

30. WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE
SCALE- FOURTH EDITION (WAIS-IV)
• The current version of the test, WAIS-IV, which was released
in 2008, is composed of 10 core subtests and five
supplemental subtests, with the 10 core subtests comprising
the full scale IQ.
• WAIS-IV is administered to adolescents and adults aged
16years 0 months to 84years 11months.
• The test framework of the WAIS-IV is organized into four
index scales: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning,
Working Memory, And Processing Speed.
• The subtests within a scale are used to derive the
corresponding index score (i.e., Verbal Comprehension
Index, Perceptual Reasoning Index, Working Memory Index,
Processing Speed Index).

31. • The terms VCI and PRI are substituted for the terms VIQ and
PIQ in clinical decision-making and other situations where VIQ
and PIQ were previously used.
• The following composite scores can be obtained using WAIS-
IV:
• Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)
• Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
• Working Memory Index (WMI)
• Processing Speed Index (PSI)
• Full Scale IQ (FSIQ)
• In addition to the five composite scores described, the General
Ability Index (GAI) is included as an optional composite
score. The GAI is derived from the sum of scaled scores for
the 3 Verbal Comprehension and the 3 Perceptual Reasoning
subtests, providing a summary score that is less sensitive than
the FSIQ to the influence of working memory and processing
speed. In general, the FSIQ is considered the most valid
measure of overall cognitive ability.

32. • Each index scale contributes to the Full Scale, which is
used to derive the FSIQ.
Verbal Comprehension
Index Scale
Core subtests:
Similarities, Vocabulary,
Information
Supplemental Subtest:
Comprehension
Perceptual Reasoning
Index Scale
Core Subtests:
Block Design, Matrix
Reasoning, Visual Puzzles
Supplemental Subtests:
Figure Weights (16-69)
Picture Completion
FULL SCALE IQ
Working Memory Index
Scale
Core Subtests:
Digit Span, Arithmetic
Supplemental Subtests:
Letter Number Sequencing
(16-69)
Processing Speed Index
Scale
Core Subtests:
Symbol Search, Coding
Supplemental Subtest:
Cancellation (16-69)
All the Supplemental subtests are shown in italics.

33. DESCRIPTION OF THE WAIS-IV
SUBTESTS
The following table lists the WAIS-IV subtests, in order of
administration and brief description of each subtest:
Subtests Description
Block
Design
Working within a specified time limit, the examiner
views a model and a picture, or a picture only, and
uses red and white blocks to recreate the design.
Similarities The examinee is presented with two words that
represent common objects or concepts and
describes how they are similar.

34. Subtests Description
Digit Span For digit span forwards, the examinee is read a
sequence of numbers and recalls the numbers in
the same order. For digit span backwards, the
examinee is read a sequence of numbers and
recalls the numbers in reverse order. For digit span
sequencing, the examinee is read a sequence of
numbers and recalls the numbers in ascending
order
Matrix
Reasoning
The examinee views an incomplete matrix or
series and selects the response option that
completes the matrix or series.
Vocabulary For picture items, the examinee names the object
presented visually. For verbal items, the examinee
defines words that are presented visually and
orally.

35. Subtests Description
Arithmetic Working within a specified time limit, the examinee
mentally solves a series of arithmetic problems.
Symbol
Search
Working within a specified time limit, the examinee
scans a search group and indicates whether one of
the symbols in the target group matches.
Visual
Puzzles
Working within a specified time limit, the examinee
views a completed puzzle and selects three
response options that, when combined, reconstruct
the puzzle.
Information The examinee answers questions that address a
broad range of general knowledge topics.
Coding Using a key, the examinee copies symbols that are
paired with numbers within a specified time limit.

36. • Standardization of WAIS-IV:
The WAIS-IV was standardized on a sample of 2200 people
(200 examinees per age band for ages 16-69 and 100
examinees per age band for ages 70-90) in the United States
ranging from 16-90. An extension of the standardization has
been conducted with 688 Canadians in the same age range.
The median Full Scale IQ is centered at 100, with a standard
deviation of 15. In a normal distribution, the IQ range of one
standard deviation above and below the mean (i.e., between
85 and 115) is where approximately 68% of all adults would
fall.
• Norms of WAIS-IV:
The WAIS-IV normative data was established using a sample
collected from March 2007 to April 2008, sample was
stratified on key demographic variables (age, sex, race,
ethnicity, self or parent education level, geographic region),
according to the October, 2005 US census data.

37. • Reliability and validity:
The WAIS-IV, over a two to twelve week time period, the test-
retest reliabilities ranged from 0.70 (7 subscales) to 0.90 (2
subscales). Inter-scorer coefficients were very high, all being
above 0.90. The WAIS-IV correlated highly with the Stanford-
Binet IV test (0.88) and had high concordance with various
measures: memory, language, dexterity, motor speed,
attention, and cognitive ability.
Composite WAIS-IV
(16-90)
VCI (VIQ) 0.96
POI/ PRI (PIQ) 0.95
WMI 0.94
PSI 0.90
FSIQ 0.98

38. STANDARD METHOD OF
ADMINISTRATION OF WAIS-IV
• Standard subtest administration order:
Block design is the first subtest administered. Verbal
Comprehension and Perceptual Reasoning subtests are
administered in alternating order whenever possible, with
Working Memory and Processing Speed subtests
interspersed. This subtest order was formulated to
increase interest, maintain variety, and minimize fatigue
effects. Core Subtests 1. Block Design 6. Arithmetic
2. Similarities 7. Symbol Search
3. Digit Span 8. Visual puzzles
4. Matrix Reasoning 9. Information
5. Vocabulary 10. Coding

39. • Supplemental subtests provide a broader sampling of
cognitive and intellectual functioning and can also be used
as substitutes for core subtests.
• Subtest Substitution:
• Only ONE substitution is allowed for each index score.
• No more than two substitutions are allowed when
deriving the FSIQ and GAI.
• Substitution introduces error but is preferable to prorating
scores.
Supplemental Subtests Letter Number Sequencing
Figure Weights
Comprehension
Cancellation
Picture Completion

40. SCORING OF WAIS-IV
The following steps are followed for the scoring of WAIS-IV:
• Calculate Raw Scores for each subtest.
• Enter the subtest Raw Scores on the summary report or the
assessment section of the scoring assistant.
• Using appropriate appendix to convert subtest Raw Scores
to Scaled Scores.
• Generate sums of Scaled Scores.
• Calculate Index Scores by summing the 10 subtest scaled
scores, to look up composite scores.
• The summation of the composite scores gives the Full Scale
IQ (FSIQ).
• Further more, the Strengths and Weaknesses of the subtest
scaled scores are obtained by finding out the critical value,
using the Table B.5.

41. WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR
CHILDREN (WISC)
• The original Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children
(WISC; Wechsler, 1949) adapted the Information,
Arithmetic, Similarities, Vocabulary, Digit Span,
Comprehension, Picture Completion, Picture Arrangements,
Block Design, Object Assembly, and Coding subtests of the
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1939) for
use with children. The Mazes subtest, developed specially
for the WISC, brought the total number of subtests to 12.
The subtests were organized into Verbal and Performance
Scales, and provided scores for Verbal IQ (VIQ),
Performance IQ (PIQ) and Full Scale IQ.

42. • The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Revised
(WISC-R; Wechsler, 1974) retained all the 12 subtests from
the first edition, but shifted the age range from 5-15 years to
6-16 years. No new subtests were introduced, and the revised
instrument continued to provide VIQ,PIQ, and FSIQ scores.
• The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Third
Edition (WISC-III; Wechsler, 1991) retained all the subtests
from the WISC-R, and introduced a new subtest, Symbol
Search, as a measure of processing speed. In addition to the
traditional VIQ, PIQ and FSIQ scores, four new indices were
introduced in the WISC-III to represent more narrow domains
of cognitive functions: Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI),
Perceptual Organization Index (POI), the Freedom from
Distractibility Index (FDI), and the Processing Speed Index
(PSI).

43. WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR
CHILDREN- FOURTH EDITION (WISC-IV)
• The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Fourth
Edition (WISC-IV; 2003) is composed of 15 subtests.
• WISC-IV is administered to children and adolescents aged 6
years 0 months to 16 years 11months.
• A number of modifications were done in WISC-IV, including
changes in content, administration and scoring procedures.
• Three subtests from WISC-III were dropped in this revision:
Picture Arrangements, Object Assembly and Mazes.
• Along with it, 5 new tests were developed in WISC-IV, such as
Picture Concept, Letter Number Sequencing, Matrix
Reasoning and Word Reasoning. Cancellation was developed
as a supplemental Processing Speed subtest based on
existing versions of similar tasks.

44. • The most recent edition Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children- Fifth Edition (WISC-V; 2014) was published in 2014.
WISC-V has a total of 21 subtests. It yields 15 composite
scores.
• Composite Terminology and Composition:
A total of 5 composite scores can be derived with the WISC-IV.
It provides a Full Scale IQ to represent the child’s overall
cognitive ability. Four additional composite scores can also be
derived to represent the child’s functioning in more discrete
domains of cognitive functioning:
 Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI),
 Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) (previously known
as Perceptual Organization Index),
 Working Memory Index (WMI) and
 Processing Speed Index (PSI).

45. • The terms Verbal IQ (VIQ) and Performance IQ (PIQ) have
been replaced with the terms VCI and PRI respectively; like
the VIQ, the VCI contains the subtests assessing verbal
reasoning, comprehension, and verbal expression. The term
PRI was chosen to better reflect an increased emphasis on
fluid reasoning in this index.
• Subtest Terminology:
The following figure depicts the WISC-IV test framework and
the subtests that contribute to each composite.
• Subtests are identified as core or supplemental.
• There are 10 core subtests divided among the four indices.
The core subtests should be administered in most situations
where composite scores are desired.
• Supplemental subtests provide a broader sampling of
cognitive and intellectual functioning and can also be used
as substitutes for core subtests.

46. FSIQ
VCI
Similarities
Vocabulary
Comprehension
Information
Word
Reasoning*
PRI
Block Design
Picture
Concepts*
Matrix
Reasoning*
Picture
Completion
WMI
Digit Span
Letter-
Number
Sequencing*
Arithmetic
PSI
Coding
Symbol Search
Cancellation*
Supplemental subtests are shown in italics and the new
subtests are starred.

47. The following table lists the WISC-IV subtests, in order of
administration and brief description of each subtest:
DESCRIPTION OF THE WISC-IV SUBTESTS

48. SUBTESTS DESCRIPTION
Digit Span For Digit Span Forwards, the child repeats
numbers in the same order as presented aloud by
the examiner. For Digit Span Backwards, the child
repeats numbers in the reverse order of that
presented aloud by the examiner.
Picture
Concepts*
The child is presented with two or three rows of
pictures and chooses one picture from each
row to form a group with a common
characteristic.
Coding The child copies symbols that are paired with
simple geometric shapes or numbers. Using a key,
the child draws each symbol in its corresponding
shape or box within a specified time limit.
Vocabulary For picture items, the child names pictures that are
displayed in the stimulus book. For verbal items,
the child gives definitions for words that the
examiner reads aloud.

49. SUBTESTS DESCRIPTIONS
Letter-Number
Sequencing*
The child is read a sequence of numbers and
letters and recalls the numbers in ascending
order and the letters in alphabetical order.
Matrix
Reasoning*
The child looks at an incomplete matrix and
selects the missing portion from five response
options.
Comprehension The child answers questions based on his or her
understanding of general principles and social
situations.
Symbol Search The child scans a search group and indicates
whether the target symbol(s) matches any of the
symbols in the search group within a specified time
limit.
Picture
Completion
the child views a picture and then points to or
names the important part missing within a specified
time limit,

50. SUBTESTS DESCRIPTIONS
Cancellation* The child scans both a random and a structured
arrangement pf pictures and marks target
pictures within a specified time limit.
Information The child answers questions that address a broad
range of general knowledge topics.
Arithmetic The child mentally solves a series of orally presented
arithmetic problems within a specified time limit.
Word
Reasoning
The child identifies the common concept being
described in a series of clues.

51. STANDARD METHOD OF
ADMINISTRATION OF WISC-IV
• Everyone needs practice to get accustomed to subtest
administration, recording, and scoring procedures. The
WISC-IV includes a variety of subtests designed to measure
different aspects of a child’s cognitive functioning. A number
of administration issues apply to the scale in general, such
as subtest administration order (where only a particular
order is followed), subtest substitution, start points, reverse
and discontinue rules, timing, teaching items, queries, and
recording responses.
• All the guidelines provided are quite similar to previous
WISC revisions, with minor changes here and there.
• The Administration procedure, guidelines and recording
responses are quite similar to WAIS-IV.

52. 1. Block Design 9. Comprehension
2. Similarities 10. Symbol Search
3. Digit Span 11. Picture Completion
4. Picture Concepts 12. Cancellation
5. Coding 13. Information
6. Vocabulary 14. Arithmetic
7. Letter Number Sequencing 15. Word Reasoning
8. Matrix Reasoning
Standard Subtest Administration Order:
Supplemental Tests:
Supplemental subtests provide a broader sampling of cognitive
and intellectual functioning and can also be used as substitutes
for core subtests.
Picture Completion, Cancellation, Information, Arithmetic and
Word Reasoning are the supplemental subtests used in WISC-
IV.

53. SCORING OF WISC-IV
The following steps are followed for the scoring of WISC-IV:
• First, entering the subtest Raw Scores on the summary
report or the assessment section of the scoring assistant.
• Second, using appropriate appendix table A.1 to convert
subtest Raw Scores to Scaled Scores.
• Third, calculating index scores by summing the 10 subtest
scaled scores, using Tables A.2 through A.6 to look up
composite scores.
• Finally, the summation of the composite scores gives the
Full Scale IQ.
• Further more, the strengths and weaknesses of the subtest
scaled scores are obtained by finding out the critical value,
using the Table B.5.

54. INTERPRETATION OF WAIS-IV/ WISC-IV
Quantitative Analysis:
• Interpretation of WAIS-IV/WISC-IV is primarily made on the
basis of the scores obtained from the indexes and the FSIQ;
quantitatively, all these scores provide profile interpretation.
The FSIQ is considered to be the score that is most
representative of general cognitive ability (g).
• Most individuals have areas of relative cognitive Strengths
and Weaknesses. It is, in fact, very uncommon for the
average person to function at the same level in every ability
area. Practitioners clearly reason for calculating a difference
score, and that reason is based on the individual’s history, the
referral question, behavioral observation, and other test
results.

55. • The minimum differences between a single subtest and the
average of subtest scaled scores required for statistical
significance (critical value) is at the 0.05 levels.
• The interpretation of the difference between a single subtest
score and individual’s own mean score is an intra individual
comparison strengths and weakness relative to the
individual’s own general ability level. Intra subtest scatter is
the variability of an individual’s scores across the subtests
(Matarazzo, Daniel, Prifitera and Herman, 1988). Such
variability has frequently been considered diagnostically
significant.
• Thus, quantitative analysis includes FSIQ, scores obtained
in each of the indexes and the relative cognitive strengths
and weaknesses.

56. Qualitative Analysis:
Frequently, the presence of unique, highly personal, or unusual
responses can suggest some important dimensions of an
individual’s intellectual or personality functioning (Groth-Marnat
et al., 2000; Kaplan et al., 1991,1999). In addition, no single
subtest is a pure measurement of any single intellectual ability;
rather, each represents a combination of skills. It is important to
emphasize that a low or high score on a specific subtest can
occur for a variety of reasons, which again is the examiner’s
main consideration to interpret along with the overall profile.
 Discrepancies between Verbal and Performance Subtests:
• The subtests if grouped into those relying on verbal and
language (verbal scale) and those relying on performance and
motor abilities (performance scale), some discrepancy can
typically occur between these two areas, a significant
difference is required in order to present an analysis of
meaningful personality and cognitive correlates.

57. • When both verbal and performance scale scores are roughly
equivalent, it can be said that the subject is comparably able in
both of these general areas. They can be described in general
terms as being equally capable in utilizing verbal materials and
in addressing verbal problems as well as at dealing with tasks
that require visual analysis and motoric involvement for their
solution.
• If an individual does significantly better (9points or more) on
the verbal scales compared to the performance subtests
(V>P), indicates a relatively high level of education; a tendency
toward overachieving; psychomotor slowing because of
depression; difficulty working with practical tasks; deficits in
performance abilities; poor visual-motor integration; a slow,
deliberate, reflective work style that results in relatively lower
scores on timed tests (but higher scores on verbal tests); or a
quick, impulsive work style resulting in relatively more errors
on Performance subtests (Kaufman, 1994; Kaufman &
Lichtenberger, 1999, 2000, 2002; Sattler, 2001).

58. • If an individual does significantly better (9 points or more) on
the Performance scales than on the Verbal subtests (P>V),
this may indicate a number of interpretive possibilities,
including superior perceptual organizational abilities, ability to
work under time pressure, a tendency toward low academic
achievement, possible acting out ( juvenile delinquency).
• Higher performance in Verbal scales than in Performance
scales (9 points or more, V>P) is present with unilateral right
hemisphere lesions (Kaufman, 1994; Kaufman &
Lichtenberger, 1991, 2001, 2002; Reitan & Wolfson, 1993;
Sattler, 2001), where as higher Performance scores than
Verbal scores (P>V) is consistent with unilateral left
hemisphere lesions (Kaufman & Lichtenberger, 2002).
• Verbal- Performance split is more likely to occur for males
than for females (Bornstein & Matarazzo, 1982; Kaufman &
Lichtenberger, 2002; Lezak, 1995) and for adults but not for
children (Kaufman, 1994; Lezak, 1995; Kaufman &
Lichtenberger, 2002).

59.  Assessing Brain Damage:
• The WAIS and WISC measure many abilities that are likely to
be lowered by brain damage. These include memory,
learning, perceptual organization, problem solving, and
abstract reasoning. As a result, the Wechsler intelligence
scales are typically a core feature of any neuropsychological
battery (Groth-Marnat, 2000b; Sullivan & Bowden, 1997).
• They are tests that can reflect the effects of brain damage as
well as a variety of other conditions.
• During the earlier development of the WAIS and WISC,
Wechsler (1958) hoped that brain damage could be
discriminated based on relative lowering in subtests that were
most sensitive to neurological impairment. He referred to
these brain-sensitive tests as no-hold tests (Digit Span, Digit
Symbol, Similarities, Block Design) and contrasted them with
hold tests, which were believed to be far more resistant to
impairment (Information, Object Assembly, Picture
Completion, Vocabulary).

60. • Another frequent belief is that brain damage is more likely to
lower Performance than Verbal tests. Some good reasons can
be given to suggest this may be true. The Performance
subtests are timed and, because many persons with brain
damage tire easily and have difficulties with concentration and
attention, they would be expected to have a particularly
difficult time with these tests. Support for this has been found
because the Processing Speed Index (PSI) has been lowered
with several types of cognitive impairment (Fisher, Ledbetter,
Cohen, Marmor, & Tulsky, 2000; Hawkins, 1998;
Psychological Corporation, 1997).
• From a theoretical perspective, fluid intelligence is tied more to
an intact brain structure and also is assessed more clearly by
the ongoing problem-solving tasks presented in the
Performance subtests. Thus, a destruction of brain tissue
would be more likely to lower fluid intelligence, which would be
reflected in lowered Performance subtest scores.

61. The following section describes the abilities or traits that can be
obtained from individual subtests and their scores:
 Similarities:
• Similarities subtest is present for both WAIS-IV and WISC-IV
as core subtests and used for the assessment of VCI.
• It primarily measures logical abstract reasoning, verbal
concept formation or conceptual thinking, distinguishing from
non-essential details and associative ability combined with
language facility.
• It is used to gain information regarding the nature of
idiosyncratic or pathological form of concept formation.
• Individuals with a good ability for insight and introspection tend
to perform high on this subtest; thus, it may be an indicator of
favorable prognosis for psychotherapy.
• Similarities because of its demand for abstraction tends to be
elevated in patients such as obsessive-compulsive and
paranoid who emphasize abstract and symbolic modes of
thoughts.

62. • Scores decrease significantly in case of schizophrenia, rigid or
inflexible thinkers, and patients with senile conditions.
• It is the most sensitive subtest to left hemisphere lesions,
particularly lesions to the left temporal and/or left frontal
regions (Dobbins & Russell, 1990).
 Vocabulary:
• Vocabulary subtest is present for both WAIS-IV and WISC-IV
as core subtests and used for the assessment of VCI.
• It includes abilities/ traits such as, language development, word
knowledge, general verbal intelligence, language usage and
accumulated verbal learning ability.
• It is the single best estimate of intellectual capacity being
stable over time and relatively resistant to neurological deficit
and psychological disturbances (Lezak, 1995; Reitan &
Wolfson, 1993). Thus, vocabulary may be considered as
baseline and can be compared to other subtests.

63. • Because of its high degree of stability, it is often used as an
indicator of a person’s intellectual potential and to make an
estimate of their premorbid level of functioning.
• Clinical populations scoring high on vocabulary may be using
compulsive or intellectualizing defense mechanisms.
• Children with brain damage often score lowest on the
Vocabulary subtest (Boll, 1974; Reitan, 1974b; Reitan &
Wolfson, 1992).
 Information:
• Information subtest is used as a core subtest in WAIS-IV and
as an supplemental subtest for WISC-IV, and it is also a
measure of VCI.
• Wechsler referred to this subtest as ‘hold’ tests as opposed to
‘no-hold’ tests, which he theorized are more sensitive to
deterioration and situational variables such as anxiety and
fatigue.

64. • It is a good measure of general intelligence and are highly
correlated with educational level (Kaufman et al., 1988).
• Rappaport et al (1945) indicated that the effort to acquire a
general fund of information is frequently an indicator of
intellectual ambitiousness.
• Information and Vocabulary are generally lowered (relative to
Similarities) in patients with left temporal lobe damage
(Dobbins & Russell, 1990).
• People who have tendency to repress easily would not be
coming up with Information items and so result in poor score
compared to Vocabulary. Repressive people with their marked
degree of memory blockage are likely to show disruptive
inefficiency and variability on a task like ‘Information’ which
concerns long range memory, relates to active intellectual
strivings and deals with sharply defined bits of experience.
• Obsessive- Compulsive individuals on the other hand, with his
characteristic, pedantic emphasis on detail and intellectual
strivings will tend to obtain a relatively high score.

65. • Low scores may show superficiality of interests, lack of
intellectual curiosity, cultural deprivation, or lack of familiarity
with items, difficulties with retrieval, affected by factors such as
anxiety (Kaplan et al.,1991; Mittenberg et al., 1989; Ryan
and Paul, 1999).
 Comprehension:
• Comprehension is used as a supplemental subtest for WAIS-IV
and a core subtest for WISC-IV, for the measure of VCI.
• It is utilized in social intelligence; comprehension measures a
subject’s grasp on social conventionality and social judgment
(Rappaport et al., 1945).
• This subtest is frequently a very sensitive indicator of
maladjustment. Low scores may represent a need to defy or
ignore social conventionality or they may indicate an
impairment of judgment or a diminished interest in social
interaction. For example, in schizophrenic condition.

66. • Failure on the easy items indicates impaired judgment, even
though later, more difficult items are passed. Low scores are
indicative of disturbed perceptions, idiosyncratic thinking or
antisocial tendencies.
• Low scorers, especially if they have 4 or more subscale points
below Vocabulary, might have poor judgment, impulsiveness,
and hostility against their environment.
• However, high comprehension may also represent a push
towards hyper conventionality or conformity and reflect the
conventional thinking and moral strivings of individuals with
hysterical features.
• High Comprehension, especially coupled with lower Information
are characteristic of hysterics.
• The reverse patterns, that is, high Information and low
Comprehension is generally seen in obsessive compulsive
individuals because largely of uncertainties and excessive
qualification but excessive fund of information.

67.  Block Design:
• Block Design is used as a core subtest for both WAIS-IV and
WISC-IV, as a measure of PRI.
• It is a nonverbal, relatively culture-free test of intelligence and
correlates highly with general intelligence.
• It is an excellent indicator of right hemisphere brain damage
and is especially sensitive to right parietal lesions (Lezak,
1995; Reitan & Wolfson, 1992,1993).
• Right lesion patients tend to make errors because they might
distort the designs, misperceive aspects of them, or become
disoriented when attempting to complete them. In contrast, left
lesion patients, particularly if the lesion is in the parietal lobe,
are not nearly as likely to have a poor Block Design score.
• Alzheimer’s patients usually perform the lowest in this subtest,
it is sensitive to the early phases of the disease and thus can
be useful in differentiating between Alzheimer’s and pseudo-
dementing conditions such as depression (Fuld, 1984; La Rue
& Jarvik, 1987).

68. • Inattention (neglect) can be reflected by the examinee’s failing
to complete the right or left portion of the design (Lezak,
1995). Since anxiety interferes with attention, performance is
facilitated and lack of anxiety is frequently seen in schizoid
personalities.
 Matrix Reasoning:
• Again, Matrix Reasoning is used as a core subtest for both
WAIS-IV and WISC-IV, as a measure of PRI.
• Matrix Reasoning is untimed and is, therefore, useful for
persons from older age groups who might do poorly on some
of the other timed tests, does not penalize those who have a
reflective, cautious problem-solving style.
• Low scores might suggest low visual concept formation, poor
or, at least, rigid visual reasoning, or poor concentration.
Negativism might be indicated if the examinee seems
unmotivated and replies with wording such as “none of them
match.”

69.  Picture Completion:
• Picture Completion is used as a supplemental subtest for both
WAIS-IV and WISC-IV as a measure of PRI.
• It is a measure of visual concentration and is a non-verbal test
of general information, involves discovering consistency and
inconsistency by paying close attention to the environment and
accessing remote memory.
• Scores on this test will be high and frequently have positive
scatter in paranoid patients for whom hyper-alertness and
hyper-vigilance are the primary modes of functioning.
• Obsessive Compulsive individuals may also have inflated
scores because of their meticulous examination of every aspect
of the picture.
• Passive, dependent personalities might make errors and score
low because they notice the absence of people controlling the
actions in the picture.

70. • Since the objects/people are shown in an incomplete state, a
low score might also reflect concerns over bodily intactness,
with possible castration concerns.
• Sometimes negative, inflexible, oppositional individuals state
that there is nothing missing in the pictures.
• Impulsiveness can often produce lowered performance
because the examinee may make a quick response without
carefully analyzing the whole picture.
• A low score may also be seen as a function of passivity.
Specific conflictual issues may be reflected in long delays,
failures on relatively easy items or failures involving particular
content.
 Digit Span:
• Digit Span is a core subtest for both WAIS-IV and WISC-IV and
is a measure of WMI.
• It is an excellent test of concentration and attention, auditory
sequencing and rote learning.

71. • Collectively, the three subtests of WMI ( Digit Span, Arithmetic
and Letter-Number Sequencing) are sensitive tests to brain
damage, mental retardation, learning disabilities (Lezak, 1995;
Psychological Corporation, 1997) and ADHD (Bannatyne,
1974; Kaufman, 1994).
• Passive, anxiety- free individuals seem to do best on this test.
Performance is greatly hampered by increased anxiety or
tension, and the Digit Span subtest is considered the most
susceptible to the effects of anxiety.
• Digits Forward is fairly stable and resistant to deterioration,
Digits Backward is a far more difficult task and is quite
sensitive to deterioration.
• When Digits Backward is longer than Digits Forward, this rare
event (3% to 10% of children’s protocols; Wechsler, 1991;
0.9% of adult profiles, Psychological Corporation, 1997)
suggests that the individual has excellent numerical abilities.

72. • A large discrepancy (5 digits) in favor of Digits Forward versus
Digits Backward can suggest the presence of an organic deficit,
particularly if the overall backward Digit Span score is below
scores for tests such as Information and Vocabulary.
• Digits Forward is more likely to be lowered by left hemisphere
lesions, lowered Digits Backward is more consistent with either
diffuse or right frontal involvement (Lezak, 1995; Swierchinsky,
1978).
• Lowered performance for both Digit Span backward and Digit
Symbol occurs with the diffuse damage associated with
exposure to solvents (Groth-Marnat, 1993; Morrow, Furman,
Ryan, & Hodgson, 1988).
 Arithmetic:
• Arithmetic is a core subtest for WAIS-IV and a supplemental
subtest for WISC-IV and is a measure of WMI.
• The Arithmetic subtest requires a focused concentration as well
as basic mathematical skills and an ability to apply these skills.

73. • A low score solely on Arithmetic relative to Vocabulary is
typically found in hysterical and narcissistic individuals who
avoid active effortful ideation and the elaboration of the internal
experience. Histrionic personalities, who do not readily accept
outside direction and generally refuse to take responsibility for
their behaviors, may likewise do poorly.
• The diagnostic implication of an Arithmetic score lower than
Digit Span becomes all the more critical when Digit Span is
higher than Vocabulary, for then it indicates a lack of anxiety
and blandness when there are differences in concentration.
• If both Arithmetic and Digit Span scores are low, which
frequently occurs in anxious, unreflective hysterics,
impairments both in active concentration and attention are said
to be present.
• Both Digit Span and Arithmetic are frequently lowered in brain
damaged populations, particularly with left hemisphere lesions
(Kaufman & Lichtenberger, 2002; Lezak, 1995; McFie,
1960,1969).

74.  Letter- Number Sequencing:
• It is a supplemental subtest for WAIS-IV and a core subtest for
WISC-IV, measures WMI.
• It is good measure of sequencing, attention and concentration.
 Symbol search:
• Symbol Search is used as a core subtest for both WAIS-IV and
WISC-IV, and it is a measure of PSI.
• Symbol Search was designed to be as pure a test as possible of
information-processing speed.
• High scores suggests good levels of visuo-motor coordination,
short-term visual memory, planning, general learning, and a
high level of attention and concentration.
• Low scores also suggest slow mental processes; visual-
perceptual difficulties; anxiety; and a reflective, perfectionistic,
or obsessive problem-solving style.

75.  Coding:
• Coding is used as a core subtest for both WAIS-IV and WISC-
IV and is a measure of PSI.
• It is extremely sensitive to the effects of either organic or
functional impairment.
• A high Digit Span and low Digit Symbol- Coding reflects that the
subject is essentially depressed and attempting to ward off
recognition of depressive affect perhaps in a hypomanic way,
usually via denial.
• A low score, markedly below vocabulary, is frequently a sign of
depressive lack of energy output where as a score above
vocabulary may be an evidence of an overt compliant striving
and a desire for achievement going beyond one’s intellectual
capacities; the confused orientation like as in patients with
schizophrenia also produces a decrease in performance; Lower
scores indicates anxious hesitancy, obsessiveness,
deliberation, and perfectionism.

76. • Coding is one of the most sensitive subtests to the effects of
any type of organic impairment (Lezak, 1995; Psychological
Corporation, 1997; Reitan and Wolfson, 1993), and it tends
to be one of the lower scores found in learning-disabled
individuals (Bannatyne, 1974; Groth-Marnat, 2002; Kaufman,
1994).
• In addition, patients with rapidly growing tumors are more likely
to have lower scores than those with slow-growing tumors
(Reitan and Wolfson, 1993).
• The Processing Speed Index (PSI) has been found to be most
frequently lowered group of subtests among a wide variety of
brain-impaired populations (Hawkins, 1998).

77. CONCLUSION
As a concluding remark, it is important to note that
• Although WAIS and WISC is widely used across the world,
the biggest criticism is that the some scales are not
culturally fair.
• Norms may not be applicable for ethnic minorities or
persons from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.
• A further potential difficulty is that when supplementary
subtests are substituted for regular subtests, it is unclear
how these supplementary subtests will affect the three IQ or
index scores.
• Lastly, a number of authors have criticized what they
believe is an over-interpretation of subtest and index scores
(McDermott, Konold, Snelbaker, & Watkins, 1998;
Konold, Glutting, McDermott, Kush, & Watkins, 1999;
MacMann & Barnett, 1997).
•

78. THANK YOU!!
Contact information:
Ms. Deepanwita Roy
Clinical Psychologist (RCI Registered)
Email address: deepanwitaroycp@gmail.com