The document discusses intelligence quotient (IQ) tests and theories of intelligence. It provides information on: 1. Definitions of IQ as a score based on mental and chronological age. Genetics and environment both influence IQ. 2. Neurological factors correlated with intelligence including brain size and activity levels. 3. Motivation being important for intelligence and involving activation, persistence, and intensity towards goals. 4. Theories of intelligence including Spearman's two-factor theory distinguishing general intelligence from specific abilities. Wechsler scales measure intelligence in children and adults.

1. INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ):
An intelligence quotient (IQ) can be defined as “It is a total score derived
from one of several standardized test designed to assess human intelligence.
The abbreviation "IQ" was coined by the Psychologist William Stern for
the German term Intelligenzquotient.
Historically, IQ is a score obtained by dividing a person’s mental age
score by the person’s chronological age, both expressed in terms of years and
months. The resulting fraction is multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ score
Genetics and Environment:
Environmental and genetic factors play a role in determining IQ.
Heritability is defined as “The proportion of variance in a trait which is
attributable to genotype within a defined population in a specific environment.
Heritability, as a term, applies to populations, and in populations there are
variations in traits between individuals. Heritability measures how much of that
variation is caused by genetics. The value of heritability can change if the
impact of environment (or of genes) in the population is substantially altered. A
high heritability of a trait does not mean environmental effects, such as learning,
are not involved. Since heritability increases during childhood and adolescence.
BRAIN ANATOMY:
Several neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in
humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape,
and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features that may affect
IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and
chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the
brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose metabolic rate.
MOTIVATION AND INTELLIGENCE:
1. Motivation:
Motivation is defined as” The process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-
oriented behaviors.” Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a
glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.
Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that
activate behavior. In everyday usage, the term motivation is frequently used to
describe why a person does something.

2. COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION:
There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence, and
intensity.
1. Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in
a psychology class.
2. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles
may exist. An example of persistence would be taking more psychology
courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investment of
time, energy, and resources.
3. Intensity can be seen in the concentration that goes into pursuing a goal.
For example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another
student will study regularly, participate in discussions and take advantage of
research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks intensity, while
the second pursues his educational goals with greater intensity.
Intelligence: The word intelligence is derived from the Latin verb
‘intellegere’ which means understanding.
It can be defined as” The ability to think rationally, act purposefully and
deal effectively with the environment”
OR
“Intelligence is defined as mental capability that involves the ability to reason,
to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to learn quickly and to learn from
experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-
taking smartness.
Nature and Characteristics of Intelligence and its Development:
Intelligence is not acquired after sustained labor. It is a gift from nature.
Intelligence is not memory. An intelligent person may have poor memory.
Intelligence is not a skill which a worker acquires after planned practice.
Intelligence is not a guarantee of a good behavior of the individual. Therefore,
intelligence is an inborn ability of an individual, the distribution of intelligence

3. is not equal among all human beings. There is wide individual difference that
exists among individuals with regard to intelligence
To understand the nature of intelligence E.L. Thorndike and Garret gave the
classification intelligence:
1. Concrete Intelligence: It is the ability of an individual to comprehend
actual situations and to react to them adequately. The concrete intelligence is
evident from various activities of daily life. This type of intelligence is
applicable when the individual is handling concrete objects or medicines.
Engineers, mechanics and architects have this type of intelligence.
2. Abstract Intelligence: It is the ability to respond to words, numbers and
symbols. This is acquired after an intensive study of books and literature. Good
teachers, lawyers, doctors, philosophers etc. have this type of intelligence.
3. Social Intelligence: It means the ability of an individual to react to social
situations of daily life. Adequate adjustment in social situations is the index of
social intelligence. Persons having this type of intelligence know the art of
winning friends and influencing them. Leaders, ministers, members of
diplomatic sources and social workers have it.
FACTOR ANALYSIS:
It is a term used to refer to a set of statistical procedures designed to determine
the number of distinct unobservable constructs needed to account for the pattern
of correlations among a set of measures.
TWO- FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE:
Charles Spearman developed his two-factor theory of intelligence using factor
analysis. His research not only led him to develop the concept of the g factor of
general intelligence, but also the s factor of specific intellectual abilities.
Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence:
In 1904, Charles Spearman had developed a statistical procedure called factor
analysis. In factor analysis, related variables are tested for correlation to each
other, and then the correlation of the related items is evaluated to find clusters or
groups of the variables.

4. Spearman tested how well people performed on various tasks relating to
intelligence. Such tasks include: distinguishing pitch, perceiving weight and
colors, directions, and mathematics.
When analyzing the data he collected, Spearman noted that those that did well
in one area also scored higher in other areas. With this data, Spearman
concluded that there must be one central factor that influences our cognitive
abilities. Spearman termed this general intelligence g.
g and s factor:
Spearman proposed that his two-factor theory has two components.
1. The general intelligence, g, influences the performance on all mental tasks.
2. The specific intelligences, influences abilities on a particular task.
THEORIES OF TRAIT ORGANIZATION:
In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional theory) is an approach to
the study of human personality.
Trait theorist is primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be
defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.
History:
Gorden Allport was an early pioneer in the study of traits, which he also
referred to as dispositions. In his approach, there are three types of traits
1. Cardinal traits: These are those traits that dominate and shape a person's
behavior; their ruling passions, such as a need for money, fame etc.
2. Central traits: These are characteristics found in some degree in every
person; such as honesty.
3. Secondary traits: These are those traits seen only in certain circumstances
(such as particular likes or dislikes
Currently, two general approaches are the most popular:
 Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): It is called "the three-factor
model"). Using factor analysis Hans Eysenck suggested that personality is
reducible to three major traits: neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism.
 Big Five Personality Traits: It is called "the five-factor model"). Many
psychologists currently believe that five factors are sufficient: neuroticism,
extraversion, and openness to experience, agreeableness, and
conscientiousness.

5. WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN
VS. ADULTS
 David Wechsler (1896 - 1981) was an American psychologist whose
work frequently specialized in intelligence testing.
 He developed two intelligence scales:
 1.The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R)
 2. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).

WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE-REVISED
(WAIS-R)

 Purpose: It was designed as a comprehensive test of cognitive ability for
adults.
 Population: Ages 16 and over.
 Score: Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and Full Scale IQ.
 Time: (60-90) minutes.
 Author: David Wechsler.
 Description: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R)
is a general test of intelligence, which Wechsler defined as, " the global
capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to
deal effectively with his environment.”
 The WAIS-R consists of 11 subtests divided into two parts, verbal and
performance.
 Scoring: The WAIS-R consists of six verbal subtests and five
performance subtests. The verbal tests are: Information, Comprehension,
Arithmetic, Digit Span, Similarities, and Vocabulary. The Performance
subtests are: Picture Arrangement, Picture Completion, Block Design,
Object Assembly, and Digit Symbol. The scores derived from this test are
a Verbal IQ (VIQ), a Performance IQ (PIQ), and a Full Scale IQ (FSIQ).
The FSIQ is a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation
of approximately 15.
 Reliability: Corrected split-half reliability coefficients for Verbal IQ (.95
to .97) and Full Scale IQ (.96 to .98), and their respective standard errors
of about 2 points, are quite acceptable. The reliability of Performance IQ
is excellent, averaging .93, although the value of .88 at ages 16 to 17 is
not ideal.

6.  Validity: The manual for this revised edition does not provide new
validity data, but refers interested persons to the manual for the original
WAIS.
 .Suggested Uses: The WAIS-R is recommended for use in clinical,
educational, and research settings.
WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN
(WISC)
 It was originally developed in 1949. This test was administered to
determine cognitive function in children aged 5 to 15. In recent years, 6 -
16 has become the preferred range.
 The WISC measures two aspects of intelligence in children: verbal and
performance intelligence.
 1. Verbal intelligence includes aspects like vocabulary and
comprehensions.
2. Performance intelligence includes matrix reasoning and picture
completion.
 The WISC requires between 65 – 80 minutes for administration and
generates a score typical of most IQ tests. The average score is 100 with
higher scores indicating higher than average intelligence and lower scores
indicating lower levels of intelligence.
 This instrument is sometimes used to help diagnosis low cognitive
functioning or disability in teens and adults instead of using the more age-
appropriate WAIS, which may be too difficult for this population group.