Human Anatomy

1. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
Foundations: An
Introduction to
Anatomy
PowerPoint®
Lecture Presentations prepared by
Steven Bassett
Southeast Community College
Lincoln, Nebraska

2. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction
• Anatomy
• The study of external structures
• The study of internal structures
• The study of the relationship between body
parts
• Physiology
• The study of how the body functions

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Microscopic Anatomy
• Microscopic anatomy
• The study of structures that cannot be seen
without magnification
• Cytology—study of cells
• Histology—study of tissues

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Microscopic Anatomy
• Macroscopic anatomy
• The study of structures that can be seen
without magnification
• Surface anatomy: refers to the superficial
anatomical markings
• Regional anatomy: refers to all structures in a
specific area of the body, whether they are
superficial or deep
• Systemic anatomy: The study of the organ
systems of the body (digestive system,
cardiovascular system, etc.)

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Figure 1.1 The Study of Anatomy at Different Scales
Size
meters (m) millimeters (mm) micrometers (µm) nanometers (nm)
Approximate Magnification (Reduction)
Factor
From actual to artwork on this page
Unaided human eye
HumanBody
Humanheart
Fingertip(width)
Largeprotozoan
Humanoocyte
Redbloodcell
Bacteria
Mitochondrion
Viruses
Ribosomes
Proteins
DNA(diameter)
Aminoacids
Atoms
Compound light
microscope
Scanning electron
microscope
Transmission electron
microscope
(× .15) (× .12) (× .6) × 20 × 83 × 103
× 103 × 103
× 105 × 106
× 106
× 106 × 107 × 108
.1nm1nm2nm8–10nm11nm10–120nm120µm 10µm 1–12µm 2µm.5mm12mm120mm1.7m
Relative size m to mm Relative size mm to µm Relative size µm to nm

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Other Perspectives on Anatomy
• Developmental anatomy:
• Examines structural changes over time
• Embryology:
• study of the first two months of development
• Comparative anatomy:
• Considers different types of animals
• Clinical anatomy:
• Focuses on pathological changes
during illness

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Other Perspectives on Anatomy
• Surgical anatomy:
• Studies anatomical landmarks important for
surgical procedures
• Radiographic anatomy:
• The study of anatomical structures with the
use of x-rays or ultrasound scans on an intact
body
• Cross-sectional anatomy:
• The use of radiographic techniques (CT and
MRI scans) to look at cross sections of the
body

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LE 1-16b
Rib
Vertebra Spleen
Aorta
Left kidney
Stomach
Liver

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LE 1-16c
Vertebra
Spleen
Kidney
Stomach
Liver

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Figure 1.2 Comparative Anatomy
Dorsal, hollow nerve
cord forming
brain and
spinal cord
Notochord
a stiffened rod below
spinal cord, usually
replaced by vertebrae
Muscular tail
extends beyond
exit of
digestive tract
Digestive
tract
Mouth Heart Anus
Braincase
of cartilage or
bone surrounds
the brain
Pharyngeal (gill)
arches
may persist or be modified
to form other structures
in adult
Ventral body
cavity
contains thoracic
and abdominopelvic
organs
Somites
segmental blocks
forming muscles,
vertebrae, etc.
Skull
surrounds
brain in
cranail cavity
Limb bud
Somites
Somites
Limb
buds
Embryo
Salmon (bony fish)
Chicken
Human
Adult
Vertebrae
surround
spinal cord
in spinal cavity
Skull
Skull
Vertebrae
Vertebrae
The similarities between
vertebrates are most apparent
when comparing embryos at
comparable stages of
development.
The similarities are less
obvious when comparing
adult vertebrates.
All vertebrates share a basic
pattern of anatomical organization
that differs from that of other
animals.
Basic
Vertebrate
Body Plan

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Levels of Organization
• Chemical/Molecular (simple)
• Cell
• Tissue
• Organ
• Organ system
• Organism (complex)

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Levels of Organization
• Chemical/Molecular
• Over a dozen elements in the body
• Four of them make up 99% of the body
• Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen
• Major classes of compounds
• Water
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Nucleic acids

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Figure 1.3 Composition of the Body at the Chemical Level of Organization
Molecular
composition of
the body
Elemental composition of the
body.
Trace elements include silicon,
fluorine, copper, manganese, zinc,
selenium, cobalt, molybdenum,
cadmium, chromium, tin,
aluminum, and boron.
Hydrogen
62%
Oxygen
26%
Carbon
10%
Nitrogen
1.5%
Carbohydrates
3%
Lipids
10%
Proteins
20%
Water – 66%
OTHER ELEMENTS
Calcium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Sulfur
Chlorine
Magnesium
Iron
Iodine
Trace elements
0.2%
0.2%
0.06%
0.06%
0.05%
0.04%
0.03%
0.0005%
0.0000003%
(see caption)

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Levels of Organization
• Cell
• The smallest living unit in the body
• Tissue
• Many cells and some surrounding material
• Organ
• Combination of tissues

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Levels of Organization
• Organ System
• Combination of various organs make up a
specific system
• For example: the stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas make up
the digestive system
• Humans are composed of 11 organ systems

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Figure 1.4 Levels of Organization
Organism Level
Organ System Level
Organ Level
Tissue Level
Cellular Level
Chemical or
Molecular Levels
.1nm
10nm
10µm
1mm
1mm
120mm
1.7m
Size
All of the organ systems must
work together for a person to
remain alive and healthy.
Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Lymphoid
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
The cardiovascular system
includes the heart, the blood,
and blood vessels.
The heart is a
complex three-
dimensional organ.
Cardiac muscle tissue
constitutes the bulk of
the walls of the heart.
Cardiac muscle tissue
is formed from interlocking
heart muscle cells.
Heart muscle cells
contain within them
contractile
protein fibers.
Complex contractile
protein fibers are
organized from molecules.
Molecules are
formed from
interacting atoms.

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Figure 1.5 An Introduction to Organ Systems (Part 1 of 2)
ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR FUNCTIONS
Integumentary
system
Skeletal
system
Muscular
system
Nervous
system
Endocrine
system
Cardiovascular
system
Protection from environmental
hazards; temperature control
Support, protection of soft tissues;
mineral storage; blood formation
Locomotion, support, heat
production
Directing immediate responses to
stimuli, usually by coordinating the
activities of other organ systems
Directing long-term changes
in the activities of other organ
systems
Internal transport of cells and
dissolved materials, including
nutrients, wastes, and gases

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Figure 1.5 An Introduction to Organ Systems (Part 2 of 2)
ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR FUNCTIONS
Lymphoid
system
Defense against infection and
disease
Respiratory
system
Digestive
system
Urinary
system
Reproductive
system
Delivery of air to sites where gas
exchange can occur between
the air and circulating blood
Processing of food and
absorption of organic nutrients,
minerals, vitamins, and water
Elimination of excess water,
salts, and waste products;
control of pH
Production of sex cells and
hormones

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An Introduction to Organ Systems
• Responsiveness (irritability)
• A change in activity based on a stimulus
• Adaptability
• Long-term responsiveness
• Growth
• The increase in size of an organism
• Differentiation
• Becoming specialized to perform particular
functions

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An Introduction to Organ Systems
• Reproduction
• The production of new generations of the
same organism
• Movement
• The ability to change the position of
something
• Metabolism
• All the chemical reactions in the body
• Anabolism: the synthesis of complex molecules
• Catabolism: the breakdown of complex molecules

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An Introduction to Organ Systems
• Digestion is the processes of catabolism that makes
nutrients small enough to be absorbed.
• Absorption:
• The process of bringing chemicals into the body
• Respiration:
• The absorption, transport, and use of oxygen by cells
• Digestion:
• The processes of catabolism that make nutrients small
enough to be absorbed
• Excretion:
• The removal of wastes

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 1 of 12)
The Integumentary System
Protects against
environmental hazards;
helps control body
temperature
Hair
Epidermis and
associated
glands
Fingernail

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 2 of 12)
The Skeletal System
Provides support; protects
tissues; stores minerals;
forms blood cells
Skull
AXIAL
SKELETON
APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
Sternum
Ribs
Vertebrae
Sacrum
Supporting
bones
(scapula and
clavicle)
Upper
limb
bones
Pelvis (supporting
bones plus sacrum)
Lower
limb
bones

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 3 of 12)
The Muscular System
Allows for locomotion;
provides support;
produces heat
Axial
muscles
Appendicular
muscles

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 4 of 12)
The Nervous System
Directs immediate
responses to stimuli,
usually by coordinating
the activities of other
organ systems
CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Spinal
cord
Brain
Peripheral
nerves
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 5 of 12)
The Endocrine System
Directs long-term
changes in activities
of other organ
systems
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid glandParathyroid gland
Thymus
Suprarenal gland
Pancreas
Ovary in
female
Testis in male

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 6 of 12)
The Cardiovascular System
Transports cells and
dissolved materials,
including nutrients,
wastes, and gases
Heart
Artery
Vein
Capillaries

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 7 of 12)
The Lymphoid System
Defends against
infection and disease;
returns tissue fluid to
the bloodstream
Thymus Lymph nodes
Spleen
Lymphatic vessel

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 8 of 12)
The Respiratory System
Delivers air to sites where
gas exchange can occur
between the air and
circulating blood;
produces sound
Pharynx
Trachea
Lung
Diaphragm
Nasal cavity
Sinus
Larynx
Bronchi

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 9 of 12)
The Digestive System
Processes food and
absorbs nutrients
Salivary gland
Stomach
Large intestine
Pharynx
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Small intestine
Anus

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 10 of 12)
The Urinary System
Eliminates excess
water, salts, and
waste products
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 11 of 12)
The Male Reproductive System
Produces sex cells
and hormones
Prostate gland
Seminal gland
Ductus
deferens
Urethra
Epididymis
Testis
Penis
Scrotum

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Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 12 of 12)
The Female Reproductive System
Produces sex cells
and hormones;
supports embryonic
development from
fertilization to birth
Mammary
gland
Uterine
tube
Ovary
Uterus
Vagina
External
genitalia

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The Language of Anatomy
• Superficial Anatomy
• Using the proper terms to identify the
structures of the body helps physicians
communicate with each other and the patient
• The terms are typically derived from Latin or
Greek
• Latin or Greek is used because they are descriptive
languages

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Figure 1.7 The Importance of Precise Vocabulary

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The Language of Anatomy
• Anatomical Landmarks
• Anatomical position
• standing upright, arms at sides, palms facing
forward (little fingers by the thigh), feet flat on the
floor, face straight ahead. The hands are at the side
• All discussion of the human body is in reference to
the anatomical position
• Supine: lying down (face up) in the anatomical
position
• Prone: lying down (face down) in the anatomical
position

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Figure 1.8a Anatomical Landmarks Frons or
forehead (frontal)
Cranium
or skull
(cranial)
Facies
or face
(facial)
Cephalon
or head
(cephalic)
Oris or mouth (oral
Mentis or chin
(mental)
Axilla or armpit
(axillary)
Brachium
or arm
(brachial)
Antecubitis
or front of
elbow
(antecubital)
Antebrachium
or forearm
(antebrachial)
Carpus
or wrist (carpal)
Palma
or palm
(palmar)
Pollex
or thumb
Digits
(phalanges)
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal)
Patella
or kneecap
(patellar)
Crus or
leg (crural)
Tarsus or
ankle
(tarsal)
Digits (phalanges)
or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Hallux or great toe
Pes or foot
(pedal)
Anterior view in the anatomical position.
Femur or
thigh (femoral)
Pubis
(pubic)
Inguen
or groin
(inguinal)
Manus
or hand
(manual)
Pelvis
(pelvic)
Umbilicus
or naval
(umbilical)
Abdomen
(abdominal)
Mamma
or breast
(mammary)
Thoracis or
thorax, chest
(thoracic)
Cervicis or neck (cervical)
Bucca or
cheek (buccal)
Auris or
ear (otic)
Oculus or
eye (orbital or ocular)
Nasus or nose (nasal)
Trunk

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Figure 1.9a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
Right lobe of liver, gallbladder,
right kidney, portions of stomach,
small and large intestine
Cecum, appendix, and
portions of small intestine,
reproductive organs (right
ovary in female and right
spermatic cord in male),
and right ureter
Left lobe of liver, stomach,
pancreas, left kidney, spleen,
portions of large intestine
Most of small intestine and
portions of large intestine,
left ureter, and reproductive
organs (left ovary in female
and left spermatic cord
in male)
Abdominopelvic quadrants divide the area into
four sections. These terms, or their abbreviations,
are most often used in clinical discussions.

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Figure 1.9b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
More precise anatomical descriptions are provided by
reference to the appropriate abdominopelvic region.
Left
hypochondriac
region
Left lumbar
region
Left inguinal
region
Right inguinal
region
Right lumbar
region
Right
hypochondriac
region
Epigastric
region
Umbilical
region
Hypogastric
region

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The Language of Anatomy
• Abdominopelvic quadrants and regions
• Select organs found within the abdominopelvic
quadrants
• RUQ: Most of the liver, gallbladder
• LUQ: Most of the stomach, spleen
• RLQ: cecum, appendix, right ureter, right ovary,
right spermatic cord
• LLQ: left ureter, left ovary, left spermatic cord

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Figure 1.9c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Quadrants or regions are useful because there is a
known relationship between superficial anatomical
landmarks and underlying organs.
Stomach
Spleen
Urinary bladder
Liver
Gallbladder
Large intestine
Small intestine
Appendix

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The Language of Anatomy
• Anatomical directions
• The most common directional terms used are:
• Superior
• Inferior
• Anterior
• Posterior
• Medial
• Lateral
• Superficial
• Deep

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Figure 1.10 Directional References
SUPERIOR SUPERIOR
INFERIOR INFERIOR
Anterior viewLateral view
Right Left
Proximal
Lateral Medial
Distal
Distal
Proximal
Posterior
or dorsal
Anterior
or ventral
Cranial
Caudal

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Table 1.2 Regional and Directional Terms

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The Language of Anatomy
• Sectional Anatomy
• There are many different ways to dissect a
piece of tissue for further study. These are
referred to as dissectional cuts or
dissectional planes.
• Sagittal cut (midsagittal and parasagittal)
• Transverse cut
• Frontal cut
• Oblique cut

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The Language of Anatomy
• Sectional Anatomy
• Sagittal cut: separating left and right
• Midsagittal: separating left and right equally
• Parasagittal: separating left and right unequally
• Transverse cut: separating superior and
inferior
• Frontal cut: separating anterior and
posterior
• Oblique cut: separating the tissue at an
angle

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Figure 1.11 Planes of Section
Frontal plane
Transverse plane
Sagittal plane

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The Language of Anatomy
• Sectional Anatomy: Body cavities
• If you remove an organ from the body, you
will leave a cavity
• The body cavities are studied in this manner:
• Posterior cavity
• Anterior cavity

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The Language of Anatomy
• Sectional Anatomy: Body cavities
• Posterior cavity
• Cranial cavity: consists of the brain
• Spinal cavity: consists of the spinal cord

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The Language of Anatomy
• Sectional Anatomy: Body cavities
• Anterior cavity
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominal cavity
• Pelvic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity

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The Language of Anatomy
• Sectional Anatomy: Anterior cavity
• Thoracic cavity consists of:
• Pleural cavity: lungs
• Pericardial cavity: heart
• Mediastinal cavity: space between the apex of
the lungs

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The Language of Anatomy
• Sectional Anatomy: Anterior cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity consists of:
• Peritoneal cavity: stomach, intestines, spleen,
liver, etc.
• Pelvic cavity: urinary bladder

53. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Language of Anatomy
• Sectional Anatomy: Body cavities
• Each ventral cavity consists of a double-
layered serous membrane
• The membrane nearest the wall of the body
(farthest from the organs) is the parietal
membrane
• parietal pleura, parietal pericardium, parietal
peritoneum
• The membrane farthest from the wall of the
body (nearest the organs) is the visceral
membrane
• visceral pleura, visceral pericardium, visceral
peritoneum

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Figure 1.14 The Ventral Body Cavity
Ventral Body Cavity (Coelom)
Thoracic Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity
Right Pleural Cavity Mediastinum Left Pleural Cavity
Pericardial Cavity
Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity
• Provides protection
• Allows organ movement
• Lining prevents friction
Surrounded by chest wall and
diaphragm
Surrounds right
lung
Contains the
trachea, esophagus,
and major vessels
Surrounds heart
Surrounds left lung
Contains the peritoneal
cavity
Contains many
digestive glands
and organs
Contains urinary
bladder,
reproductive
organs, last portion
of digestive tract
Separated by diaphragm into
subdivided into includes the
also contains

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Figure 1.13ab Body Cavities
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
Pleural
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Pericardial
cavity
Diaphragm
Peritoneal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Lateral view of the subdivisions of the ventral body cavities.
The muscular diaphragm separates the superior thoracic
(chest) cavity and the inferior abdominopelvic cavity.
The heart projects into the
pericardial cavity like a fist
pushed into a balloon.
Heart
Visceral
pericardium
Pericardial
cavity
Parietal
pericardium
Air space
Balloon

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Figure 1.13cd Body Cavities
Anterior view of the
ventral body cavity
and its subdivisions
Peritoneal
cavity
Pleural
cavity
Pericardial
cavity
Diaphragm
Pelvic
cavity
Sectional view of the thoracic cavity. Unless otherwise
noted, all sectional views are presented in inferior
view. (See Clinical Note on pp. 22–23 for more details.)
Sternum
Heart in
pericardial
cavity
Pleural cavity
Pleura
Mediastinum
Spinal cord
Right
lung
Right
lungLeft
lung
Left
lung