2. 5.1. Motivation
Just as a force moves an object, motivation
moves and energizes a person to do an
activity
4.1.1. Definition
Motivation is the dynamics of behavior or a
force that initiates, energizes, directs and
sustains activities of a person toward a goal
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Motivation is a cycle of three stages:
1. a motivating state within the organisms,
2. behaviour aroused and directed by this
state, and
3. an intended goal toward which the
behaviour is directed
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4. Meaning and Concepts (contd)
The first stage, has various names; needs and
drives.
Needs are specific states with the organism
which is based on some deficit and that may
elicit behavior.
Drives are internal states with the organism
which pushes the organism into action towards
a particular goal
Incentives are external motivating stimulus
such as money, praise, fame or attention
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The second stage is the behavior that is
activated by the motive
The third stage is the reduction or
satisfaction of the motives which is
ordinarily achieved by reaching some goal
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6. Meaning and Concepts (contd)
A model of motivation
Need Drive Response Goal
(Need reduction)
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Types of Motives
A. Primary and Secondary Motives
Primary Motives is basic, motives, which are
unlearned and common to both animals and
humans
Secondary Motives learned, motives,
which can differ from animal to animal
and person to person.
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8. The most studied areas of social motives
The Need for Achievement: to do better, to
improve performance, to accomplish tasks, to
rival and surpass others
The Need for Affiliation (relatedness): to
seek and enjoy cooperation with others, to
make friends
The Need for power: a motive to produce
intended effects on another person - to
influence, control, persuade, and charm
others
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B. Extrinsic and Intrinsic
Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation: refers to behavior
that is driven by external rewards such as
money, fame, grades, and praise.This type
of motivation arises from outside the
individual, as opposed to intrinsic
motivation,
Intrinsic Motivation: originates inside of
the individual.
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10. 5.1.2. Theories of Motivation
A. InstinctTheory: Born to Be Motivated -
motivation is the result of biological or
genetic program
B. Drive–ReductionTheory: Satisfying our
Needs
motivation is driven by internal biological
needs, i.e. drives. Drive: is a motivational
tension that energizes behavior in order to
fulfill some end, the restoration of
homeostasis
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C. ArousalTheories: Beyond Drive–
Reduction
the aim of motivation is to maintain an
optimal level of arousal that is pleasurable
D. IncentiveTheory: Motivation’s pull:
pullTheory
our motivation is influenced by external
goals or stimuli which are known as
incentives
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12. Theories of Motivation (contd.)
E. PsychodynamicTheory
- humans have only two basic drives: Eros and
Thanatos, or the Life and Death drives
everything we think, feel, and do has one of
two goals: to help us survive (Life drive) or
prevent our destruction (Death drive)
Life instinct (Eros) and Death instinct
(Thanatos) unconsciously motivate our
behavior.
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F. CognitiveTheories: The thoughts
behind Motivation
- our thoughts, expectations, and
understanding about the world or ourselves
influence our motivation
G. HumanisticTheories of Motivation
– we are driven to achieve our maximum
potential and will always do so unless
obstacles, such as hunger, thirst, lack of
finance or safety, are placed in our ways
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14. Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self–actualization needs
Self-esteem needs
Love and belongingness needs
Safety and security needs
Physiological Needs
Ordering
Motivational
Needs
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15. Maslow’s Hierarchy (contd.)
Self–Actualization needs:- A state of self–
fulfilment in which people realize their highest
potential in their own unique way
Esteem needs:- esteem relates to the need to
develop a sense of self-worth by knowing that
others are aware of one’s competence and
value
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Love and belongingness needs:- the needs
to obtain and give affection and to be a
contributing member of some group or
society, such as communication,
relationships, and sexuality
Safety needs :- includes sensory function, a
secured environment, safety, legal and
economic protection
Physiological needs :- are the most basic
needs (primary drives) such as needs for
water, food, sleep, sex, and the like
August, 2005
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17. 5.1.3. conflicts of motives and frustration
Frustration – is a person’s negative emotion due
to actual or imagined
diversion from a goal,
blocking of goal-directed behavior, or
loss of an already achieved goal.
If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional
feelings and behaviors often result.
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Sources of frustration
Personal inadequacies
Environmental
Conflict Induced (conflicts of motives)
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19. Types of motivational conflict
Approach-approach conflict- A conflict
between two desired gratifications (
approach-approach conflict), as when a
youth has to choose between two attractive
and practicable careers, may lead to some
vacillation but rarely to great distress.
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Approach-avoidance conflict-occur
when there is one goal or event that has
both positive and negative effects or
characteristics that make the goal
appealing and unappealing
simultaneously. For example, marriage is
a momentous decision that has both
positive and negative aspects.
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Avoidance-avoidance conflict-
psychological conflict that results when a
choice must be made between two
undesirable
Multiple approaches-avoidances
conflict results when a person is faced
with a number of alternatives, each of
which is in some way both positive and
negative.
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22. 5.2. Emotions
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pleasant and very unpleasant experiences
joy of love, the sorrow over someone’s death, or
the anguish of inadvertently hurting someone
5.2.1. definition of emotion
Emotion is a physical departure from
homeostasis that is subjectively experienced in
strong feeling like love, hate, desire, or fear and
manifests itself in neuromuscular respiratory,
cardiovascular, hormonal and other bodily
changes
23. 5.2.2. Concepts of Emotions
Emotion consists of three components:
1) Physiological change - internal bodily
change
2) subjective cognitive state (mental state)
- beliefs or expectances towards certain
things that we feel and label as emotion
3) expressive behaviour - out-ward or overt
manifestation of behaviour by verbal or
non-verbal channels
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24. The physiology of Emotion
When frustration or anxiety - nerves are on
edge
When overjoyed – flying
Such expressions demonstrated that
strong emotions are associated with
physiological arousal
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25. The Expression of Emotion
Non-verbal expressions - private emotional
experiences - cannot be directly observed but
inferred from expressive behaviours
Body movements or gestures
Facial expressions - emotions that our faces
give away
Words and voice expressions
Prosody - vocal features of speech, other than
the words
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26. The Experience of Emotion
subjective - internal or mental experience of d/t
kinds of feelings
Few basic emotions
joy, fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise,
acceptance and anticipation
complex emotions (e.g. anxiety, worry, curiosity)
arise from mixtures of these basic ones
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27. 5.2.3. Theories/Dimensions of Emotions
Biological Dimension - there are specific bodily reactions that
cause us to experience a particular emotion
sympathetic and par sympathetic nervous systems involved in
emotion to arouse and calm the body respectively
The James–LangeTheory:
Environmental Physiological change Emotion
influence (arousal)
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28. The Cannon–Bard Theory
emotion and physiological reactions occur
simultaneously
Arousal
Environmental stimuli
Emotion
Cognitive Dimension
body and thought involve in emotion - understanding how
people interpret events
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The Schachter–SingerTheory (Two-FactorTheory)
emotion is determined by physiological arousal and
cognitive labelling
Physiological arousal
Perceived
External stimuli Emotion
Cognitive labelling
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