3. An Overview
Major families of theoretical perspectives
Psychoanalytic
Learning
Cognitive
Other theoretical trends
Biological
Ecological
4. Psychoanalytic Theories
Sigmund Freud
Psychosexual theory: Internal drives and
emotions influence behavior.
Patient memories used as primary source
material
Three personality types: id, ego, superego
Sexual feelings are part of personality
development.
6. Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Psychosocial theory: Development influenced
by common cultural demands and internal
drives
Each psychosocial stage requires solution of
a crisis.
Healthy development requires a favorable
ratio of positive to negative experiences.
7. Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Stages
First four stages form adult personality
foundation
Childhood-adulthood transition influential
Ages
Adult stages not strongly tied to age
9. Learning Theories
Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning: Learning process that
occurs through associations between
environmental stimulus and naturally
occurring stimulus
Reflex: Stimulus–response connection
Learned: Conditioned stimulus elicits
conditioned response.
10. Learning Theories
Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner
Operant conditioning: Deals with modification
of voluntary behavior
Behaviors dependent on reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
11. Learning Theories
Hints for Parents and Caregivers
Positive and negative reinforcement interact
in complex ways in real life.
The best chance for behavioral change
exists when an appropriate consequence
administered first after the behavior occurs.
12. Learning Theories
Social Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura
Observational learning or modeling: Learning
results from seeing a model reinforced or
punished for behavior.
Dependent on four factors:
Attention
Memory
Physical capabilities
Motivation
13. Learning Theories
Social Cognitive Theory: Self-Efficacy
Perceived self-efficacy: People's beliefs about
their capabilities to produce effects
Learning
Influenced by perceived similarity to
model
Not limited to overt behavior
Comes also from ideas, expectations,
internal standards, and self-concepts
14. Cognitive Theories
Jean Piaget
Piaget’s cognitive theory: Development
involves processes based upon actions and
later progresses into changes in mental
operations.
Scheme
Assimilation
Accommodation
Equilibration
15. Cognitive Theories
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages
Evolution of
Logical
Thinking
The rate of development differs for individual children.
16. Cognitive Theories
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Socio-cultural theory: Complex forms of
thinking have their origins in social
interactions, not private explorations.
Children learn new cognitive skills guided by a
more skilled partner.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
17. Cognitive Theories
Importance of Assisted Discovery
Assisted discovery: Child integrates results of
independent discoveries with new
knowledge taught in systematic and
structured way.
What are the educational applications of this
kind of learning?
18. Cognitive Theories
Importance of Assisted Discovery
Educational Applications
Supports active exploration opportunities
Discovery of what knowledge, skills, and
understandings have not yet surfaced for
learner but are on edge of emergence
21. Cognitive Theories
Neo-Piagetian Theories
Piagetian information-processing hybrid
Uses IP to explain Piaget’s stages
Expands (not contradicts) Piaget’s theory
Agrees that children's thinking reflects
developing internal mental structures
Draws on linguistic theories about content
domain specificity of cognition
22. Give an example each of a positive
reinforcement and a punishment in your
work or academic life.
Looking at ecological systems theory, describe
your personal exosystem, macrosystem, and
microsystem influences.
Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
23. Biological Theories
Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics: Examines genetic
underpinnings of behavioral phenotypes
Can you think of questions that might be
addressed using this theoretical
perspective?
24. Did you list twin studies in your
response?
Look at these findings from several studies of Dutch
twins. What does this tell you about the influence
of heredity and age?
Figure 2.3 IQs of Fraternal and Identical Twins
25. Other Biological Theories
Ethology and Sociobiology
Ethology: Examines genetically determined
mechanisms that promote survival through
natural selection
Imprinting
Sociobiology: Application of evolutionary
theory to social behavior
“Genetic selfishness”
26. Bioecological Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Bioecological theory: Explains development in
terms of relationships between people and
their environments
Contexts
Macrosystem
Exosystem
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Biological context
27. Place yourself in the center of the model.
Figure 2.4 Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts of Development
W
ho
orw
hatw
ould
you
placein
each
ring? W
hat prompted your
choices?
28. Why asking which theory is RIGHT
may be wrong!
Instead of right/wrong, try useful/not useful.
Evaluation of usefulness of each theory
• Generate predictions that can be tested.
• Heuristic value
• Practical value
• Explanation of basic developmental facts
29. Multiple Theoretical Approaches
Eclecticism
Interdisciplinary; builds on ideas from
multiple sources
Avoids rigid adherence to single theory
Contributes to development of more
comprehensive theories
Editor's Notes
Libido: unconscious process; internal drive for physical pleasure
Defense mechanisms
At each stage, the libido centers on different part of body; Figure 2.1 (p. 26)
Development continues throughout the entire lifespan.
Each new crisis appears because of changes in social demands that accompany changes in age.
Positive and negative reinforcement interact in complex ways in real life.
Learning from model not always automatic
Self-efficacy
Learning from model not always automatic
Scheme
internal cognitive structure
Assimilation
process of using schemes to make sense of experiences
Accommodation
changing a scheme to incorporate new information
Equilibration
balancing assimilation and accommodation
See Table 2.5
Sequential, universal, invariant
Heredity affects a broad range of traits and behaviors, and its influence is seen throughout the lifespan.
Some of the questions addressed:
How does heredity affects individual differences?
How are similar traits of related people influenced by genes?
Can a child’s pattern of inherited qualities influence how she behaves with others?
Development results from the degree to which genes help or hinder individuals’ efforts to adapt to the environment.
Emphasizes genes that aid in group survival
Biological context: child’s makeup and developmental stage
Generate predictions that can be tested.
Heuristic value: degree to which it stimulates research
Practical value
Explain the basic facts of development.
Contributes to development of more comprehensive theories to support future research questions and hypotheses