1. Function words and categories of meaning Content words: Also called open class words, such as father, pigeon, stir fry . Functional words: Closed class words, such as conjunctions if, however and auxiliaries such as may, should, and will.

2. Tense and modality Many categories of meaning are associated with function words and function morphemes. Bound morphemes: -s (as in toys), -ed(as in played) Not all languages express the meaning of past/present with a bound morpheme, but rather with an additional word, like in Tongan language.

3. Important: Whether tense is expressed through bound morphemes or separate lexical items is not important, what is important is that there is a semantic category called tense that affects the meaning of sentences.

4. The category tense refers to both word meaning and clause meaning. Modality or mood Is a category through which speakers can convey their attitude towards the truth or reliability of their assertions (EPISTEMIC MODALITY)or can express obligation, permission, or suggestion (DEONTIC MODALITY). Modality

5. EXAMPLES These sentences differ in their epistemic modality) She has probably left town by now(probability She has left town by now (assertion) 2. Harry must’ve been very tall when he was young (conjecture) Harry was very tall when he was young (assertion) They may come to the party (possibility) They are coming to the party (assertion)

6. Examples (deontic modality) He must come tomorrow (command) He is coming tomorrow (statement) They may take the dishes away (permission) They are taking the dishes away (statement)