англ

1. 21. classificationof words into parts of speech.All the words of a language fall into lexico-
grammatical classes or parts of speech which must be identified proceeding from lexical meaning,
morphological characteristics and syntactical functions. So parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of
the three criteria:
- semantic criterion based on the evaluation of the generalized categorical meaning characterizing all sets of
words constituting a given part of speech and havingcomplete or incomplete nominative meaning;
- formalcriterion provides for the specific word-building features as well as formal propertiesof grammatical
forms being possibly included into certain grammatical categories;
- functionalcriterion concerns the syntactic role of a given part of speech in the sentence production,serving
either self-dependent functions (of subject,predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier) or non-self-
dependent functions (i.e. mediatory).The paradigm of parts of speech in English includes the following: noun,
adjective, pronoun, numeral, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, article, particle, interjection; all parts
of speech are equally subdivided into notionaland structuralwords.
Notional words (noun, adjective, numeral pronoun,
verb, adverb) have a full lexical nominative meaning of their own denoting things,qualities, actions, states,
property of property and can function as independent parts of the sentence,i.e. as subject,predicate, object,
attribute and adverbial modifier. For example, a part of speech is defined as an adjective due to(a) the categorical
meaning of property with a complete nominative meaning, (b) specific suffixal forms of derivation, (c) the capacity
of qualitative adjectives to build up the category of degree, synthetically or analytically, (d) finally, playing the roles
of an attribute or adjectival predicative.Structuralwords have no lexical nominative meaning of their own and
cannot be used as independent parts of the sentence.They are either connectorsor determiners. Connectorsare
used to connect words grammatically or shape the grammatical forms of a certain part of a sentence.Here
belong prepositions(at, in, from, on),conjunctions(that, which, what,till), auxiliaries(will, do, be, more, less),
and linking verbs(seem, be, become, get, look).Determinersare used to specify the meaning of the notional words
they refer to. These are articlesandpronouns (a/the, his, this, that). The use of the article is of obligatory nature for
English nouns and testifies to the existence of a special category of determination expressed by the article paradigm
of three grammatical forms: the definite, the indefinite, the zero.It should be noted that the distinction between
structural and notional words is not quite definite in some ways: one and the same can be used in both functions in
different contexts: e.g. be/have/do as notional words in the meaning of ‘exist/possess/fulfill’ and as connectors,as
link-verbs to form Passive Voice (is/are painted),Present Continuous (is/are working),Perfect tenses (have/has
written) and others.Moreover,the border-line is often hardly recognizable in distinguishing notional parts of speech.
The fact of the matter is that English notionals can change their nature depending on the contextual
environment: American/an American, human/a human, a book/to book,flat/a flat,fat (n)/fat (adj),clean/to clean .
Due to the historical development, their true lexico-grammatical nature cannot be discriminated when taken out of a
word phrase or sentence.Hence,the striking feature of English parts of speech is variability of some notionals,which
can often shift from one part of speech to another without any morphological changes in their form.
22. generalcharacteristicsofthe sentence and its influence on the
approaches towardtranslation. A sentence is the largest and most complicated unit of language
and at the same time it is the smallest unit of speech,or the smallest utterance. In speech sentences are not given
ready-made, they are created by the speaker. But they are built according to patterns existing in the language.So
concrete sentences belong to speech.Patterns according to which they are build belong to language.A sentence
has two basic meaningful functions: naming and communicative. Sentences name situations and events of
objective reality and convey information, expressing complete thoughts orfeelings. The sentence is a structural,
semantic and communicative unity. Accordingly the three main aspects ofthe sentence are syntactic, semantic
and logico-communicative.The syntactic structure of the sentence can be analysed at two levels: pre-functional
(sentence constituents are words and word groups)and functional (sentence constituents are parts of the
sentence).The semantic structure of the sentence is a reflection of a certain situation or event which includes a
process,the doer and the objects of the process and certain circumstances and conditions of its realization. The
semantic structure of the sentence is often called deep structure,the syntactic structure is called surface structure.
There is no direct correspondence between deep and surface structure:John opened the door. NVN – doer
(agent), action, object.The key opened the door. NVN – instrument, action, object.These two aspects
characterize the sentence as a unit of language. Logico-communicative aspect characterizes the sentence as a
unit of speech,or utterance.The sentence as a unit of communication usually consists oftwo parts: the topic for
discussion,i.e. something about which a statement is made, and the information about the topic, or the statement
itself.The division into two parts,the theme and the rheme, is called the actual sentence division, or the
functional sentence perspective.There is one more aspect of the sentence as a unit of speech – the use of
sentences in social interaction, their function in particular contexts of use. For example, the statement I have no

2. cigarettes can be analysed from the point of view of the intentions of the speaker, the effect of the utterance in
the interlocutor [ɪntə'lɔkjətə] (собеседник), the appropriateness of the utterance in a given context. This aspect is
called pragmatic.Different aspects ofthe sentence are reflected in numerous definitions, which may be logical,
psychological, structural, etc.
23. hierarchicalorganizationof language.Phonemes, morphemes, words. A
phoneme /ˈfoʊnim/ is a basic unit of a language's phonology,which is combined with otherphonemes to form
meaningful units, morphemes. The phoneme can be described as "The smallest contrastive linguistic unit which may
bring about a change of meaning".[1] In this way the difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is
a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/.Two words that differ in meaning through a contrast
of a single phoneme form a minimal pair.Within linguistics there are differing views as to exactly what phonemes
are and how a given language should be analyzed in phonemic (or phonematic)terms. However, a phoneme is
generally regarded as an abstraction of a set (or equivalence class) of speech sounds (phones)which are perceived as
equivalent to each other in a given language. For example, in English, the "k" sounds in the words kit and skill are
not identical (as described below), but they are distributional variants of a single phoneme /k/. Different speech
sounds that are realizations of the same phoneme are known as allophones.Allophonic variation may be
conditioned, in which case a certain phoneme is realized as a certain allophone in particular phonological
environments, or it may be free in which case it may vary randomly. In this way, phonemes are often considered to
constitute an abstract underlying representation for segments of words, while speech sounds make up the
corresponding phonetic realization, or surface form. In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a
language. In other words, it is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. The field of study dedicated to
morphemes is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the
two is that a morpheme may or may notstand alone,whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding.When it stands
by itself, it is considered a rootbecause it has a meaning of its own (e.g. the morpheme cat) and when it depends on
anothermorpheme to express an idea, it is an affix because it has a grammatical function (e.g. the –s in cats to
specify that it is plural).[1] Every word comprises one or more morphemes. The more combinations a morpheme is
found in, the more productive it is said to be.[2] In linguistics a word is the smallest element that may be uttered in
isolation with semantic or pragmatic content (with literal or practical meaning). This contrasts with amorpheme,
which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own. A word may consist of a single
morpheme (for example: oh!, rock, red, quick,run, expect), or several (rocks, redness, quickly,running,
unexpected),whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word (in the words just mentioned, thes e
are -s, -ness, -ly, -ing, un-, -ed). A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes (rock-s, red-
ness, quick-ly,run-ning,un-expect-ed), or more than one root in acompound (black-board,rat-race). Words can be
put togetherto build larger elements of language,such as phrases (a red rock), clauses (I threw a rock),
and sentences (He threw a rock too but he missed).
The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a written word, or sometimes to the abstract concept behind
either. Spoken words are made up of units of sound calledphonemes, and written words of symbols
called graphemes, such as the letters of the English alphabet. The word combination, along with thesentence,is the
main syntactic unit. The smallest word combination consists oftwo members, whereas the largest word combination
may theoretically be indefinitely large though this issue has not yet been studied properly.
Despite its cornerstone status forthe syntactic theory,the generally recognized definition of the word combination
has not been agreed upon: it receives contradictory interpretations both from Ukrainian and Western linguists.The
traditional point of view, dating back to Prof. Vinogradov’s works (i.e. to the middle of the 20th century), interprets
the word combination exclusively as subordinate unit. Meanwhile, many linguists tend to treat any syntactically
organized group of words as word combination regardless the type of relationship between its elements.
As a rule, the word combination is defined negatively, i.e. such “negative” definitions point out what is not a word
combination. Obviously, this is hardly an apt approach, but with no other definition at hand, it may be considered
acceptable.
Under any definition of the word combination, this unit is, syntactically, a grammatical structure. Therefore, to study
its morphological composition in order to clarify combinatorial properties of parts of speech and to con sider
possibilities of substitution within a word combination is one of the tasks of the syntactic theory. In grammar,
a clause is the smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition.[1] A typical clause consists of
a subject and a predicate,[2] where the predicate is typically a verb phrase – a verb togetherwith any objects and
other modifiers. However the subject is sometimes not expressed; this is often the case in null-subject languages if
the subject is retrievable from context, but it also occurs in certain cases in other languages such as English (as
in imperative sentences and non-finite clauses). A simple sentence usually consists ofa single finite clause with
a finite verb that is independent.More complex sentences may contain multiple clauses.Main clauses (i.e. matrix
clauses, independent clauses)are those that can stand alone as a sentence.Subordinate clauses (i.e. embedded
clauses, dependent clauses)are those that would be awkward or incomplete alone. A sentence is a linguistic unit
consisting of one or more words that are grammatically linked. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully
to express a statement,question,exclamation, request, command or suggestion.[1] A sentence is a set of words that in
principle tells a complete thought (although it may make little sense taken in isolation out of context); thus it may be

3. a simple phrase, but it conveys enough meaning to imply a clause, even if it is not explicit. For example, "Two" as a
sentence (in answer to the question "How many were there?") implies the clause "There were two". Typically a
sentence contains a subject and predicate. A sentence can also be defined purely in orthographic terms, as a group of
words starting with a capital letter and ending in a full stop. In literary theory, a text is any object that can be "read,"
whether this object is a work of literature, a street sign, an arrangement of buildings on a city block, or styles of
clothing. It is a coherent set of signs that transmits some kind of informative message.[1] This set of symbols is
considered in terms of the informative message's content,rather than in terms of its physical form or the medium in
which it is represented.Within the field of literary criticism, "text" also refers to the original information content of a
particular piece of writing; that is, the "text" of a work is that primal symbolic arrangement of letters as originally
composed, apart from later alterations, deterioration, commentary, translations, paratext, etc. Therefore, when
literary criticism is concerned with the determination of a "text," it is concerned with the distinguishing of the
original information content from whatever has been added to or subtracted from that content as it appears in a given
textual document (that is, a physical representation of text).Since the history of writing predates the concept of the
"text", most texts were not written with this concept in mind. Most written works fall within a narrow range of the
types described by text theory. The concept of "text" becomes relevant if and when a "coherent written message is
completed and needs to be referred to independently of the circumstances in which it was created.
24. the word and its meaning. the semantic differentiation to the source and
targetlanguage lexicalunits during translation. In linguistics a word is the smallest element
that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content (with literal or practical meaning). This contrasts
with amorpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own. A word may
consist of a single morpheme (for example: oh!, rock,red, quick,run,expect), or several (rocks, redness, quickly,
running,unexpected),whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word (in the words just
mentioned, these are -s, -ness, -ly, -ing, un-, -ed). A complex word will typically include a root and one or
more affixes (rock-s, red-ness, quick-ly,run-ning,un-expect-ed), or more than one root in acompound (black-board,
rat-race). Words can be put togetherto build larger elements of language, such as phrases (a red rock), clauses (I
threw a rock), and sentences (He threw a rock too but he missed).The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a
written word, or sometimes to the abstract concept behind either. Spoken words are made up of units of sound
calledphonemes, and written words of symbols called graphemes, such as the letters of the English alphabet.
25. word-building in modern english. types of morphemes. lexical calque as a
translation method. translation of neologisms. Word formation is a branch of science of the
language which studies the patterns on which a language forms new lexical items (new unities, new words). Word
formation is a process of forming words by combining root & affixal morphemes.
2 major groups of word formation: 1) words, formed as grammatical syntagmas, combinations of full linguistic signs
(types: compounding (словосложение), prefixation, suffixation, conversion, back derivation).
2) words, which are not grammatical syntagmas, which are not made up of full linguistic signs. Ex.: expressive
symbolism, blending, clipping, rhyme & some others.
Different types of word formation:
- COMPOUNDING is joining together 2 or more stems.
Types: 1) without a connecting element (headache, heartbreak); 2) with a vowel or consonant as a linking element
(speedometer, craftsman); 3) with a preposition or conjunction as a linking element down-and-out (опустошенный)
son-in-law.
- PREFIXATION Prefixes are such particles that can be prefixed to full words. But are themselves not with
independent existence.
- SUFFIXATION A suffix is a derivative final element which is or was productive in forming new words. It has
semantic value, but doesn’t occur as an independent speech use.
- CONVERSION (zero derivation) A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word without
a derivative element being added.(Bag – to bag)
- BACK DERIVATION is deraving a new word, which is morphologically simpler froma more complex word. ( A
babysitter – to babysit Television – to televise)
- PHONETIC SYMBOLISM is using characteristic speech sounds for name giving. Very often we imitate by the
speech sounds what we hear: (tinkle, splash, t).
- CLIPPING Consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts. ( Mathematics – maths)
- BLENDING is blending part of two words to form one word ( Smoke + fog = smog).
 Types of morphemes. 1. • Bound morphemes (affixes) must be attached to the word.• They can’t stand
alone as words;• They are prefixes, infixes, suffixes and circumfixes, such as {clude} as in include,
exclude, preclude) or they may be grammatical (such as {PLU} = plural as in boys,girls, and cats).
 2. • Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words.• Example: girl, system, desire, hope, act,
phone,happy
 3. • A root is a morpheme that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts.• Example: cran (as in cranberry), act,
beauty,system, etc..

4.  4. • A stem is formed when a root morpheme is combined with an affix. • Other affixes can be added to a
stem to form a more complex stem.Ex: govern [root]; governable [stem]Ungovernable (more
complex[stem])
 5. are free function morphemes) morphemes may be free as well (e.g, prepositionsmorphemes can be
bound,while content/functionNote that these are not simply different names for the
derivational/inflectional distinction { D/I} Function morphemes act solely to provide grammatical
information and syntactic agreement.Examples: and, on, but, plural –s Content morphemes carry some
semantic contentForexample car, -able, -un.
 6. • Root believe (verb)• Stem believe + able (verb + suffix)• Word un + believe + able (prefix +verb +
suffix)
 7. • Root system• Stem system+ atic• Stem un + system+ atic• Stem un + system+ atic + al• Word un +
system+ atic + al + ly
 In linguistics, a calque (/ˈkælk/) or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from anotherlanguage
by literal, word-for-word (Latin: verbum pro verbo) or root-for-root translation.
 Used as a verb, to calque means to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its
components so as to create a new lexeme in the target language.
 Calque is a loanword from a French noun,and derives from the verb calquer (to trace, to
copy).[1] "Loanword" is a calque of the German Lehnwort, just as "loan translation" is ofLehnübersetzung.[2]
 Proving that a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than does an untranslated
loanword because,in some cases,a similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently.This
is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the
borrowing language or when the calque contains less obvious imagery.
 Calquing is distinct from phono-semantic matching.[3] While calquing includes semantic translation, it does
not consist of phonetic matching (i.e. retaining the approximate soundofthe borrowed word through
matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existing word or morpheme in the target language).
Neologisms are perhaps the non-literary and the professional translator's biggest problem. New objects and
processes are continually created in technology.New ideas and variations on feelings come from the media. Terms
from the social sciences,slang, dialect coming into the mainstream of language, transferred words, make up the rest.
It has been stated that each language acquire 3000 new words, annually, but in fact, neologisms can not be
accurately quantified, since so many hover between acceptance and oblivion and many are short-lived, individual
creations. In other words, Neologisms are new words, word-combinations or fixed phrases that appearin the
language due to the development of social life, culture, science and engineering. New meanings of existing words
are also accepted as neologisms. A problem of translation of new words ranks high on the list of challenges facing
translators because such words are not readily found in ordinary dictionaries and even in the newest specialized
dictionaries. How can our finite vocabulary be expanded and altered to deal with our potentially infinite world?
First, new words can be added, and the meaning of already existing words can be changed.Second, new words can
enter a language through the operation of word formation rules. (The part of language study that deals with word
formation rules is also called derivational morphology).Neologisms pass through three stages:creation, trial and
establishment (Parianou & Kelandrias, 2002: 756). First, the unstable neologismis still new, being proposed or
being only by a limited audience; Epstein (2005) calls such a neologism protologism 'from Greek protos,
first+Greek logos, word, by analogy with prototype and neologism.' Then, it is diffused, but it is not widely accepted
yet. Finally, it is stabilized and identifiable, having gained wide-spread approval; such"stability" is indicated by its a
pearance in glossaries, dictionaries and large corpora. However, even the last stage may not be the last one.
26. generalnotion of the phraseology.classificationofidioms.
In linguistics, phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs,
and othertypes of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to asphrasemes), in which the component
parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sumof their
meanings when used independently.For example, ‘Dutch auction’ is composed of the words Dutch ‘of or pertaining
to the Netherlands’ and auction ‘a public sale in which goods are sold to the highest bidder’, but its meaning is not
‘a sale in the Netherlands where goods are sold to the highest bidder’. Instead,the phrase has a conventionalized
meaning referring to any auction where, instead of rising, the prices fall. Phraseological units are stable word-groups
with partially or fully transferred meanings ("to kick the bucket", “Greek gift”, “drink till all's blue”, “drunk as a
fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl)”, “as mad as a hatter (as a march hare)”). According to Rosemarie Gläser,
a phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use,which has
relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations,and may have an emphatic or
intensifying function in a text.

5. classification of idioms. According to the Academician V. V. Vinogradov's classification phraseological units may
be classified into three groups:phraseological fusions,phraseological unities and phraseological collocations.
Phraseological fusions /5, 125/ are completely non - motivated word - groups,such as heavy father - “serious or
solemn part in a theatrical play”, kick the bucket - “die”; and the like. The meaning of the components has no
connection whatsoever,at least synchronically, with the meaning of the whole group. Idiomaticity is, as a rule,
combined with complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion.
Phraseological fusions are called “traditional”, “set expression with fixed nomination”, “combinations”, ”set
expression” in works of other researchers.Phraseological unities /3,3/ are partially non - motivated as their meaning
can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit. For example, to show
one' s teeth,to wash one' s dirty linen in public if interpreted as semantically motivated through the combined lexical
meaning of the component words would naturally lead one to understand these in their literal meaning. The
metaphoric meaning of the whole unit, however, readily suggests “take a threatening tone” or “show an intention to
injure” for show one's teeth and “discuss ormake public one's quarrels” for wash one's dirty linen in public.
Phraseological unities are as a rule marked by a high degree of stability of the lexical components.Phraseological
collocations are motivated but they are made up of words possessing specific lexical valence which accounts fora
certain degree of stability in such word - groups.In phraseological collocations variability of member - words is
strictly limited. For instance,bear a grudge May be changed into bear malice, but not into bear a fancy or liking. We
can say take a liking (fancy) but not take hatred (disgust).These habitual collocations tend to become kind of clichй
where the meaning of member - words is to some extent dominated by the meaning of the whole group.Due to this,
phraseological collocations are felt as possessing a certain degree of semantic inseparability.
27. functional styles and problems of their adequate rendering. Functional Style is a
systemof coordinated,interrelated and inter-conditioned language means intended to fulfill a specific function
(purpose)of communication and aiming at a definite effect.
• scientific
• official
• publicist
• newspaper
belles-lettres
Each style is exercised in two forms – written and oral (e.g. an article and a lecture – two forms of the scientific
style). The dichotomy “written - oral” is not synonymous to the dichotomy “literary - colloquial”, the former means
the form of presentation,the latter – the choice of language means. Colloquial messages in the written form:
personal letters, diaries. Examples of literary discourses in the oral form: report, lecture.
28. lexical stylistic differentiation of the vocabulary.terms, archaisms, poetic
words, foreign words, barbarisms, slang, jargonisms, vulgarisms, dialectical
words.The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups,differing from
each other by the sphere of its possible use. The biggest division is made up of neutral words, possessing no stylistic
connotation and suitable for any communicative , situation, two smaller ones are literary and colloquial strata
respectively.
Literacy words serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages,while the colloquial
ones are employed in non-official everyday communication. Though there is no immediate correlation between the
written and the oral forms of speech on the one hand,and the literary and colloquial words, on the other, yet, for the
most part, the first ones are mainly observed in the written form, as most literary messages appear in writing. And
vice versa: though there are many examples of colloquialisms in writing (informal letters, diaries, certain passages
of memoirs, etc.), their usage is associated with the oral form of communication.
Consequently,taking for analysis printed materials we shall find literary words in authorial speech,descriptions,
considerations,while colloquialisms will be observed in the types of discourse,simulating (copying) everyday oral
communication-i.e., in the dialogue (or interior monologue) of a prose work.
1. Terms, i. e. words denoting objects,processes,phenomena of science, humanities, technique.
2. Archaisms, is the use of a form of speech or writing that is no longer current or that is current only within
a few special contexts. Their deliberate use can be subdivided into literary archaisms, which seeks to evoke
the style of older speech and writing; and lexical archaisms, the use of words no longer in common use.[1]
3. poetic words constitute the highest level of the scale; every poetic word pertains to the uppermost part of
the scheme; it demonstrates the maximum of aesthetic value.
4. foreign words a word of a foreign language, a word taken from anotherlanguage, pronounced and written
as alien, and in English usually printed in italics.
5. Barbarisms refers to a non-standard word, expression or pronunciation in a language,[1] particularly one
regarded as an error in morphology, while a solecism refers to an error in syntax.[2] The term is used mainly
for the written language.With no accepted technical meaning in modern linguistics, the term is little used
by descriptive scientists.
6. Slang consists ofa lexicon of non-standard words and phrases in a given language. Use of these words and
phrases is typically associated with the subversion of a standard variety (such as Standard English) and is

6. likely to be interpreted by listeners as implying particular attitudes on the part of the speaker. In some
contexts a speaker's selection of slang words or phrases may convey prestige, indicating group membership
or distinguishing group members from those who are not a part of the group.
7. Jargonisms Jargon is a set of words whose aim is to preserve secrecy within a social group.Jargonisms
are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them, and because of that absolutely
incomprehensible to people outside the group.
Grease money; loaf-head; a tiger hunter-a gambler; a lexer- a law student
There is the jargon of thieves and vagabonds (cant,argot /a:gэu/ арго,-тайный язык); the jargon of
jazz people; the jargon of the army as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen; the jargon of hackers, and
many others.
Slang and jargon both differ from ordinary language in their vocabularies, but slang, contrary to
jargon needs no translation. Jargonisms do not always remain the possession ofa given social group. Some
of them migrate into othersocial strata and sometimes become recognized in the literary language as slang
or colloquial words:
Kid, fun, humbug.
8. , vulgarisms is an expression or usage considered non-standard or characteristic of uneducated speech or
writing. In colloquial orlexical English, "vulgarism" or "vulgarity" may
be synonymous with profanity or obscenity,but a linguistic or literary vulgarism encompasses a broader
category of perceived fault not confined to scatological or sexual offensiveness.("Vulgarity" is generally
not used in this more restricted sense.)These faults may include errors of pronunciation,misspellings, word
malformations,[1] and malapropisms.
9. dialectical words. This group of words is obviously opposed to the other groups of the non-literary English
vocabulary and therefore its stylistic functions can be more or less clearly defined. Dialectal words are
those,which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary
boundaries,and their use is generally confined to a definite locality.
29. phono-graphicaland morphologicalstylistic devices. Phono-graphical
level
deals with stylistic use of phonemes and their graphical representation. A phoneme is a minimal unit of
potentially meaningful sound within a given language’s systemof recognized sound distinctions.
Phonemes:
• help to differentiate meaningful lexemes
• do not have meanings of their own
• have strong associative and sound-instrumentalpower
Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose pronunciation imitates the sound the word describes. The word
“onomatopoeia” came into English usage in 16c. through Latin from Greek onomatopoiía making a name.
Echoism - 1) A word that echoes a sound:splash echoing a liquid striking something or something striking liquid;
crunch suggesting something brittle breaking into pieces. 2) An expression that echoes or alludes to another:
Onomatopoeia is often found in:
1) In children's stories: Only a bee tree goes, 'Buzz! Buzz!'
2) In comic books and cartoons: WHAM! POW! KERSPLAT! KABOOM!
3) In the language of advertising: All 3 Kodak disc cameras go bzzt, bzzt, flash, flash. One goes tick,tock,beep,
beep. And anyone who gets one for the holidays will go ooooohh!
4) When writers want to build up a phonaesthetic effect. In Ukrainian onomatopoeia is known as звукопис,
звуковідтворення.
Alliteration.The term “alliteration” ( “head rhyme” or “initial rhyme”), came into English usage in the 17c. from
Latin alliteratio/alliterationis,putting the same letters together.Alliteration is the repetition of the same sounds -
usually initial consonants ofwords or of stressed syllables - in any sequence of neighbouring words: Two-word
alliteration calls attention to the phrase and fixes it in the reader's mind.1. Ah, what a delicious day! The opposite of
alliteration is homoteleuton.
The word came into English use in 16c. from Latin “homoeoteleuton,”Greek ”homoioteleuton” having the same
ending. The opposite of alliteration in which several words in series have the same closing sounds as in
“illustrious”and “industrious”,”ethical” and “practical”.
Assonance is the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in the stressed syllables of successive orproximate
words containing different consonants.
Euphony a stylistic device, which presupposes a pleasing smoothness of sound, perceived by the ease with which
the words can be spoken in combination. The term “euphony” came into English language in 17c. from Greek
through French euphonie,Latin euphonia,meaning sounding good, a pleasant, harmonious quality in speech.
The perception of such a quality is partly physiological (soft, flowing, blending sounds are generally considered
pleasanterthan harsh,jangling, discordant sounds)and partly cultural (people tend to like sounds that they have
been led to like). In Ukrainian euphony is “милозвучність” . The opposite of euphony is cacophony-harshnessor
discordance of sound,used by poets for deliberate effect.

7. Graphon is intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination). A means of supplying
information about:
• speaker’s origin
• social and educational background
• physical or emotional condition, etc.
It can also reveal author’s sarcastic attitude to the personages (in belles-lettres style). Graphon conveys the
atmosphere of authentic live communication, the informality of the speech act. It has become very popular in
advertisements. Italics
• Underlining,
• Capitalization
• Hyphenation
• Multiplication
Morphological level
• Morpheme is a minimal unit of grammatical meaning in a language.
• Words are composed of one or more morphemes.
• Prefixes, suffixes, plural endings,etc. are called “bound morphemes” because they do not occur on their
own. Repetition is one of the ways of foregrounding a morpheme.
Effect
• morphemes come into focus of attention
• stress either their logical meaning or their emotive and evaluative meaning
• add to the rhythmical effect and text unity.
• Occasional words are created for special communicative occasions.
Very often occasionalwords are the result of morphemic repetition.“I am an undersecretary in an underbureau”.
30. foreign borrowings. Ways of borrowings into english. Being an adaptive system, the
vocabulary is constantly adjusting itself to the changing conditions of human communication. New notions appear,
requiring new words to name them. New words, expressions or neologisms are created for new things.The
neologism is a newly coined word or phrase or a new meaning for an existing word. There is a problem of
denomination. It is not still clear which words to consider new? The most rational point is that new words are the
ones that appeared in the last years of the previous generation.The borrowed words are taken from anotherlanguage
and modified in phonemic shape,spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of English. They came
in different times. Early Latin borrowings were adopted in the 1st century BC (butter, chalk, kitchen). In the 5th
century AD there penetrated a few Celtic words into English (cradle, London). In the 7th century AD, during the
Christianization, there were adopted many religious terms from Latin (priest, nun). From the end of the 7th century
till the middle of the 11th century there penetrated Scandinavian words into the English language (window, husband,
law, ugly, weak, call, take, die). The Scandinavian words are similar in pronunciation to the Anglo-Saxon ones.
Many Scandinavian words start with the ask-cluster: skill, skin, ski, skirt, sky. In 1066 when the Norman Conquest
took place, England became a bilingual country.French was officially introduced into the life of the people. The
French words borrowed at that period are of the following layers: administrative, military terms (army, officer),
educational (pupil, pencil, library), words of everyday life (dinner, river, uncle). In the Renaissance period there
were borrowed numerous words from Latin and Greek connected with science (university, professor), Italian (piano,
opera, violin etc.). In the 18th-20th centuries the basis of the words became different due to the colonial expansion:
Indian (pundit), Arabic (sherbet), Chinese etc. The Russian borrowings in the English language are of the following
layers: prerevolutionary (before 1917 vodka, valenkis, pelmenis), sovietisms (preserve only Russian meaning: polit-
bureau, 5-year-plan) and the perestroika period.
Borrowings enter the language into ways: through oral speech (by immediate contact between the peoples)and
through written speech (by indirect contact through books,etc.). Borrowings enter the language in two ways:
through oral speech (by immediate contact between the peoples) and through written speech (by indirect contact
through books,literature). Oral borrowing took place chiefly in the early periods of history, whereas written
borrowing has become important in more recent times. Words borrowed orally are usually short (Lat. inch, mill,
street) and they are successfully assimilated to the English language and are usually hardly recognizable as foreign.
Written borrowings (e.g., Fr. communiqué, belles-lettres,naiveté) preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of
their sound-form.
31. the etymologyof english words-native vocabulary. Celtic element, french
el., classicalel.,scandinavianel.Etymology is a branch of lexicology studying the origin of words.
Etymologically, the English vocabulary is divided into native and loan words, or borrowed words. A native word is
a word which belongs to the original English word stockand is known from the earliest available manuscripts of the
Old English period. A borrowed word is a word taken over from anotherlanguage and modified according to the
standards ofthe English language. Native words are subdivided into two groups:

8. 1) words of the Common Indo-European word stock;
2) words of the Common Germanic origin.
Numerically the Germanic group is larger. Thematically these two groups do not differ very much. Words of both
groups denote parts of the human body,animals, plants, phenomena of nature, physical properties, basic actions, etc.
Terms of kinship, the most frequent verbs and the majority of numerals belong to the Common Indo-European word
stock. Many adverbs and pronouns are of Germanic origin.Native words constitute about 25 percent of the English
vocabulary, but they make up 80 percent of the 500 most frequent words. Almost all native words belong to very
important semantic groups.They include most of the auxiliary and modal verbs,pronouns,prepositions,numerals,
conjunctions,articles. About 75 percent of the English vocabulary are borrowed words. Words were borrowed, first
of all, from Latin, Scandinavian and French.
The first Scandinavian words began to penetrate into the English vocabulary at the beginning of our era during the
occasional raids of the Vikings. A great number of Scandinavian borrowings pertain to the period which lasted from
the end of the 8th century to the middle of the 11th century.The languages and the cultures of the Vikings and the
Britons did not differ much which made the borrowing process easy.Many Scandinavian words used in everyday
life entered the English language: egg, husband,root,wing, anger, weak,loose, wrong,happy, ugly,die, cut, take,
give, call, want,they, their, them, both,same, till.Some Scandinavian words eventually replaced the native ones.
Thus,the pronoun they (?a) replaced the native pronoun hi, the verb take - the verb niman. Occasionally both the
English and Scandinavian words were retained with a difference in meaning or use: no/nay(отказ, отрицательный
ответ), hide/skin,craft/skill,etc.
The French language is probably the third largest source of borrowings in English (after Latin and
Scandinavian). French borrowings are subdivided into two main layers. The first layer is connected with the
Norman conquest which started at the end of the 11th century (1066). At the time of the Norman conquest common
people spoke Anglo-Saxon, while the government, the military, the church - and therefore education - were all
dominated by the French speaking Normans. The Norman dialect of the French language penetrated into every
aspect of social life.
French borrowings can be divided into several major groups:
1) religious terms: religion,clergy, paradise,prayer, saint,sacrifice, vice, virtue, preach;
2) administrative terms: state, government,parliament,nation, reign, country, power, authority,peer,baron, duke,
prince;
3) legal terms: court, judge, justice, jury, plaintiff, defendant, crime, penalty,prison, accuse, marry, marriage;
4) military terms: army, war, battle,officer, enemy;
5) educational terms: pupil,lesson, library, pen, pencil;
6) terms of art, architecture and literature: art, literature,architecture,poet,prose, story, to paint;
7) words denoting pleasures: pleasure, joy, delight,comfort, flower, leisure, sport, cards;
8) words denoting food and ways of cooking: beaf, mutton, veal, pork,bacon, sausage,biscuit, cream,
sugar, fruit, grape, orange,peach,pastry, tart,jelly, mustard, vinegar, soup, boil,fry, roast, stew, dinner, supper;
Celtic borrowings. Celts were the original inhabitants of the British Isles before the Angles, the Saxons and the
Jutes came to the Isles in the 5th century.Celts were moved to Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. Celtic borrowings
were not numerous in the English language: down, cradle [ei], bard, brat, druid,bald. But Celtic elements are well
preserved in place-names. The names of some British rivers contain the Celtic word uisge (вoда): Exe, Esk, Usk. It
is also contained in the word whiskey,formerly meaning "the water of life". The Celtic dun (крепость) is found in
the town names Dundee, Dunbar; cum (долина) - Duncombe, Boscombe; llan (церковь) - in Llandovery,Llanely,
Llangefni. London is of Celtic origin, too: llyn (река) and dun (крепость).Some male names are of
Celticorigin: Arthur (благородный), Donald (гордый вождь), Evan (молодой воин).Late Celtic borrowings are
more numerous and they came into the English language from Scottish,Irish and Welsh: clan,flannel, lock,

9. shamrock (трилистник), slogan, Tori, whiskey.Some Celtic words came into English via French: tunnel,carry,
cargo, gravel, etc.
32. ways of classifiyng the vocabulary.formaland colloquicalvocabulary.
Formal Vocabulary-
Literary words are chiefly used in writing and in
polished speech:
1. common literary words (learned words) - mostly polysemantic, used in
books of elevated style and in books on science, e.g.: calamity, proceed, en
deavour, farewell, to behold;
2. terms - words associated with a definite branch of science, used mostly in scientific works, but which may
appear in newspaper,publicistic and belles-letters style; they are usually monosemantic, e.g.: terms of chemistry -
oxygen, hydrogen,acid; terms of medicine - penicillin, influenza; physics - nucleus; art - renaissance, gargoyle.
With the increase of general education many
words, once terms, have passed into the common literary, e.g.: TV, radio, loan;
3. officialese and journalese - words used in mass media to describe oc
currences of political life, e.g.: memorandum, voting;
4. poetic words and archaisms, e.g.: ere - before; mere -lake; yon - there; nay - no; steed - horse; warrior - soldier;
welkin - sky;
5. barbarisms and foreign words. Barbarisms - words of foreign origin
not entirely assimilated into English. They have an appearance and pronunciation of their native language, e.g.: au
revoir; maitre d'hotel; achtung; bitte; basta; voila (here). Barbarisms are words which have become facts of the
English language and are registered in dictionaries. Foreign words do not belong to English, are not registered in
dictionaries. In printed works they are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature. Barbarisms, on the
contrary are not made conspicuous in the text. Colloquial vocabularу is represented as overlapping into the
standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary
and on the special colloquial vocabulary, e.g. the words teenager (a young girl or young man) and hippie (hippy)
(ayoung person who leads an unordered and unconventionallife) are colloquial words passing into the neutral
vocabulary. They are gradually losing their non-standard characterand becoming widely recognized. However,
they have not lost their colloquial association and therefore still remain in the colloquial stratumof the English
vocabulary.
33. Inversion. Suspence. Detachment. Inversion is a Standard word order in English declarative
sentences is first the subject, then the verb. (See Basic Word Order in the section Grammar.)
I am reading a book now. Я читаю книгу сейчас.
Inversion in English usually refers to placing the auxiliary, modal, or main verb before the subject.Inversion is used
with a certain aim, often for emphasis.
Never before have I seen such beauty. Никогда раньше не видел я такой красоты.
Suspense is the deliberate slowing down of the thought,postponing its completion till the very end of the
utterance.Very often the stylistic device of suspense is formed by various kinds of parenthetical words and
sentences.e.g.I have been accused of bad taste. This has disturbed me, not so much for my own sake as for the sake
of criticism in general.
Detachment Detached Construction is a secondary part of a sentence,placed so that it seems formally independent
of the word it logically refers to. The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of
significance.
Example-Steyne rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with fury in his eyes.
This stylistic device is akin to inversion, detached construction produces a much strongereffect.
‘I want to go’, he said, miserable.’
34. types of narration. Narration is the act of telling a story, usually in some kind of chronological order.
Making up a scary ghost story and relating it around a camp fire is an act of narration.
• Narration generally means any kind of explaining or telling of something. It is usually used in reference to
storytelling. If you've ever watched a television showwhere one character's voice talks directly to the
audience, then you've heard narration. You will often find narration happening in songs where the singer is
telling the story of how something happened — like the day he lost his guitar, his truck, his wife, and
started singing the blues. Real and implied authors
• Real and implied readers
• Narrator and narratee
• First-person narrative
• Third-person narrative
• Dialogue
• Inner Speech

10. • Free indirect speech
35.noun.grammaticalcategories ofenglishang ukrainian nouns. Noun is a word that
functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things,such as living creatures, objects,places, actions,
qualities, states ofexistence, or ideas.[2][note 1] Linguistically, a noun is a member of a large, open part of
speech whose members can occur as the main word in the subjectof a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of
a preposition.[3]
Lexical categories (parts of speech)are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other
kinds of expressions. The syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns are those
words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase.
Grammatical categories of nouns.English Nouns have 2 grammar categories
The category of number
The category of case
The Category Of Number. This category indicates whether one or more things is meant. Oneness is expressed by
singular and more-than-oneness by plural forms.All English nouns have form which corresponds to the structural
type of the singular or plural. But not all of them have the grammatical category of number. Only count nouns are
inflected for it. Only these nouns indicate whether the noun names one or more than one referent , that is ,are used in
both numbers.Grammatical numbers of English nouns are the singular and the plural. The basic form is the
singular.The plural of almost all the counts is built by adding the inflexion -/e/s to the basic form /singular form/. In
speech this inflexion is related in 3 variants:
The Category Of Case. Case is the inflected form of the noun indication the grammatical relation in which .the
noun stands to otherparts of the sentenceEnglish nouns have a two case system: the common case/the basic form/
and the genitive case/the possessive case./The genitive case of all singular nouns /which are used in it, of course of
those plurals which don’t have the number morpheme –s / is built up by means of the morpheme –s which is added
to the base form.
36. verb. Grammaticalcategoriesoftense, aspectand perfect. A verb, from the
Latin verbum meaning word, is a word (part of speech)that in syntaxconveys an action
(bring, read, walk,run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand). In the usual
description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive. In many languages,verbs
are inflected (modified in form) to encode tense,aspect,mood, and voice. A verb may also agree with
the person,gender, and/ornumber of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses:
present,to indicate that an action is being carried out; past,to indicate that an action has been done; future, to
indicate that an action will be done.
Grammatical tense- In grammar, tense is a category that expresses time reference.[1][2] Tenses are usually
manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns.Basic tenses found in
many languages include the past,present and future. Some languages have only two distinct tenses,such as past
andnon-past,orfuture and non-future. There are also tenseless languages,like Chinese, which do not have tense at
all. On the other hand, some languages make finer tense distinctions,such as remote vs. recent past,or near vs.
remote future.Tenses generally express time relative to the moment of speaking. In some contexts, however, their
meaning may be relativised to a point in the past or future which is established in the discourse (the moment being
spoken about). This is called relative (as opposed to absolute)tense.Some languages have different verb forms or
constructions which manifest relative tense,such as pluperfect ("past-in-the-past")and "future-in-the-past".
Aspect is a grammatical category that expresses how an action, event or state,denoted by a verb, relates to the flow
of time.
A basic aspectualdistinction is that between perfective and imperfective aspects (not to be confused
with perfect and imperfect verb forms; the meanings of the latter terms are somewhat different). Perfective aspect is
used in referring to an event conceived as bounded and unitary, without reference to any flow of time during ("I
helped him"). Imperfective aspect is used for situations conceived as existing continuously or repetitively as time
flows ("I was helping him"; "I used to help people"). Further distinctions can be made, for example, to
distinguish states and ongoing actions (continuous and progressive aspects)from repetitive actions (habitual aspect).
Certain aspectualdistinctions express a relation in time between the event and the time of reference. This is the case
with the perfect aspect,which indicates that an event occurred prior to (but has continuing relevance at) the time of
reference: "I have eaten"; "I had eaten"; "I will have eaten".

11. The perfect aspect is formed with the auxiliary verb 'to have' + the past participle. It is used for finished actions that
are relevant to the time referred to or ones that continue up to the time referred to:
She's worked here for donkey's years.(this continues up to now)
I've lost my keys. (a past action that is relevant now as I can't open the door)
37. types of languages.characteristicsofsynchretic and analitical language.
Different types of languages:In topological classification of languages linguists use to divide them in about 5 main
types.It must be added however that hardly any language or family is purely of one variant. The five types are
designated:
- Isolating languages (analytical or root languages)
- Agglutinating languages
- Inflecting languages
- Polysynthetic or incorporating languages
- Analytic languages
Isolating languages:
38. interior speech.representedspeech.Interior speech is best known in the form of interior
monologue, a rather lengthy piece of the text (half a page and over) dealing with one major topic of the character's
thinking, offering causes for his past, present or future actions. Short insets of interior speech present immediate
mental and emotional reactions of the personage to the remark or action of other characters. The workings of our
brain are not intended for communication and are, correspondingly,structured in their own unique way. The
imaginative reflection of mental processes,presented in the form of interior speech,being a part of the text, one of
the major functions of which is communicative, necessarily undergoes some linguistic structuring to make it
understandable to the readers. represented speech is speech which is not spontaneous and is scripted. For
example,Eastenders. Represented speech has no non-fleuncy features and the actors will not speak over each other-
this is so people can understand what they are saying.Also the punctuation is accurate. Represented speech exists
in two varieties: 1) uttered represented speech and 2) unuttered or inner represented speech.
39. types of repetition. Paralelconstructions. Chiasmus.
. Repetition as a stylistic device is a direct successorofrepetition as an expressive language means, which serves to
emphasize certain statements of the speaker, and so possesses considerable emotive force.
There are many classifications of these stylistic device and i'll give you one of them because i think it's very difficu lt
to determine the type of repetition.
 Types-
 Conduplicatio is the repetition of a word in various places throughout a paragraph.
"And the world said, 'Disarm, disclose, or face serious consequences'—and therefore, we worked with the
world, we worked to make sure that Saddam Hussein heard the message of the world."
 Mesodiplosis is the repetition of a word or phrase at the middle of every clause.
"We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed; we are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted,but not
forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed..." (Second Epistle to the Corinthians)
 Diaphora is the repetition of a name, first to signify the person or persons it describes,then to signify
its meaning.
Diacope is a rhetorical term meaning uninterrupted repetition of a word, or repetition with only one or two words
between each repeated phrase.
Anaphora /əˈnæfərə/ is the use of an expression the interpretation of which depends upon anotherexpression in
context.
Parallel construction, also called parallelism, shows that two or more ideas are equally important by stating them in
grammatically parallel form: noun lined up with noun, verb with verb, phrase with phrase. parallel construction in
English is based on a repetition of grammatical form. A word can coordinate with a word if it is the same
grammatical class (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition), a phrase can coordinate with a phrase if the head of
the phrase is the same grammatical class (same as brackets above), and a clause can coordinate with a clause.
Chiasmus or Reversed Parallel The term Chiasmus came into English in19c. from Greek khiasmós,meaning
crossing.It is an inversion of word order that creates a counterbalancing effect in the second of two linked

12. phrases:'One must eat to live, not live to eat' (Cicero). Construction belongs to the group of stylistic devices based
on the repetition of a syntactical pattern; but it has a cross order of words and phrases.The structure of two
successive sentencesorof a sentence'may be described as reversed parallel construction,the word order of one of
the sentences being inverted as compared to that of the other. Chiasmus is sometimes achieved by a sudden change
from active voice to passive or vice versa. This device is effective in that it helps to lay stress on the second part of
the utterance,which is opposite in structure,as our dejection.
40. taboo. Euthemisms. Taboo is expressions which people avoid using in polite society because they
believe them harmful or feel them embarrassing or offensive. A euphemism is a generally innocuous word or
expression used in place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something unpleasant.[1] Some euphemisms
are intended to amuse; while others use bland, inoffensive terms for things the userwishes to downplay.
Euphemisms are used to refer to taboo topics (such as disability, sex, excretion, and death) in a polite way, or to
maskprofanity.[2]
There are three antonyms of euphemism: dysphemism, cacophemism, and loaded language.Dysphemism can be
either offensive or merely ironic; cacophemism is deliberately offensive. Loaded language evokes a visceral
response beyond the meaning of the words. The word euphemism comes from the Greek word εὐφημία (euphemia),
meaning "the use of words of good omen", which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words eû (εὖ), "good,well"
and phḗmē (φήμη) "prophetic speech; rumour, talk".[3] Etymologically, the eupheme is the opposite of
the blaspheme "evil-speaking." The term euphemism itself was used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks, meaning
"to keep a holy silence" (speaking well by not speaking at all).