2. Personology
Personology = the psychology of
personality
Provide an explanation of human
behaviour through developed theories
Human behaviour are very complex;
therefore not only one correct theory
More than 30 existing personality theories
3. Personology [2]
Behaviour are influenced by many factors,
either independently or in interaction with
each other:
- Biological factors
- Environmental factors
- Interpersonal situations
- Cultural & social factors
- Psychological factors
- Spiritual factors
4. Personology [3]
Each theory highlights one or more of these
factors
Not possible to know everything about human
functioning
Not possible to predict human behaviour
absolutely
Branch of psychology which focus on:
- Characteristics of the individual person
- Differences between people
- Similarities between different people
5. Personology [4]
Personology is a purposeful & sustained
effort to develop a logical, consistent &
conceptual system for :
- describing;
- explaining;
- predicting; and
- controlling human behaviour
6. “Personality”
The sum of all physical, psychological &
spiritual characteristics which influence the
behaviour of a person
Personality characteristics stays relatively
the same although people change with time
A person’s personality do not exist in
isolation
Social and cultural factors also influence
behaviour
7. “Character”
Aspects of the personality which involves a
person’s values
A person’s ability to behave according to
those values
Moral attributes and values
Influence by education & interaction with
social environment
8. “Temperament”
Refers to people’s emotions
The way people express and deal with their
emotions
“…relatively consistent & distinctive emotional
character, moods & reaction style”
The emotional aspect of a person’s biological &
psychological self
Temperament can change through learning &
socialisation
Born with the potential for a certain temperament
9. “Temperament” [2]
Expression of temperament depends on
interaction with environment
Temperament has 4 main characteristics:
- General activity level: very high activity to
extreme passivity
- Emotionality: Easily agitated to very calm
- Sociability: Very outgoing to very shy
- Impulsivity: A lot of self-control to no self-
control
10. “Trait”
Stable qualities – remains consistent in
various changing contexts
Traits are inferred from behaviour
Traits can predict behaviour
Example: She is generally a very relaxed
person; or He is a very aggressive person in
general.
11. “Type”
Refers to various people with various types
they have in common
Categories/ labelling a person according to
their personality characteristics
Ex. People are either introverted or
extroverted.
Do not provide a full explanation of
personality
12. “Self-concept”
A person’s ideas, perceptions and feelings
about who he/she is
Build one’s SC from daily experiences &
revise them in the light of new information
An established SC shapes the way we seen
things
Can affect adjustment to different
circumstances
See example, p. 190
13. “Self-esteem”
The way we evaluate ourselves
High self-esteem: developed when
success is experienced & people praise us;
people can overestimate themselves = can
lead to arrogance
Low self-esteem: Very critical of self;
insecure & lacks confidence
Accurate self-knowledge: People who are
realistic about own abilities & accept
themselves
15. 1. Trait theories
Allport’s trait theory
Cattell’s source traits
Five-factor model of personality
2. Psychoanalytical approach
3. Behaviourist approach
4. Humanist approach
5. Biological approach
6. African Perspectives
16. Trait theories
Describe people i.t.o. their traits
Not concerned about origin of traits
17. Allport’s trait theory
Understand behaviour through that which
people value
Concerned with the things they try to attain
NB trait – motivational traits related to
values
The way traits relate to each other are
important!
3 types of traits, ranked in order if
importance:
Cardinal
-
- Central
- Secondary
18. Allport’s trait theory [2]
Cardinal – very important values which
dominates a person life
Central – values which influence &
organise most of a person’s behaviour
Secondary – specific, but less
important to a person’s behaviour, like a
specific food preference
Read example, p. 192
19. Cattell’s source traits
Surface traits & source traits
Appears in clusters
Developed 16 traits to describe a
personality
Surface traits – a group of traits
Source trait – the underlying trait to which
the surface traits refer to
20. 5-factor model of Personality
Personality can be understood i.t.o 5 inate,
universal dimensions
These dimensions are stable over a period of time
Have consequences over a life span
The 5 traits are…
- Neuroticism
- Extroversion
- Openness
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
21. 5-factor model [2]
Everyone possesses these traits, to
different degrees however
The combination determines our personality
Underlie all human behaviour – across
cultures and age groups
Varieties on them accounts for individual
differences
22. 5-factor model [2]
Factor Trait Meaning
no.
1 Extroversion Introverted or extroverted
2 Agreeableness Friendly, nurturing & caring vs. cold,
indifferent, spiteful or self-centred
3 Conscientiousnes Self-disciplined, responsible & achieving vs.
s irresponsible, careless & undependable
4 Neuroticism Negative or upsetting emotions vs. calm, even
tempered & comfortable
5 Openness to Intelligent, imaginative & open to new ideas
experience vs. conventional, lacking in curiosity &
creativity
23. Psychoanalytic approach
Discontent with examining personality
through traits only
Interested in what make us behave the way
we do
Sigmund Freud: best known psychodynamic
approach
Ill-health resulted form conflict about
sexuality & aggression
Behaviour is the outcome of wishes, desires
& feelings that people is unaware of –
unconscious thoughts
24. Psychoanalytic approach [2]
Three types of primitive unconscious
instincts:
- Sexual instinct: Experiences & behaviour
which generates pleasure
- Ego instincts: behaviour which preserves
the self
- Hostility instincts: aggressive experiences &
behaviour
These generate tension & energy which
causes the person to release these tension
in a certain way
25. Psychoanalytic approach [3]
2 Principles which regulates instinctual energy:
- Pleasure principle: immediate gratification of needs,
wishes & desires
- Reality principle: delay immediate gratification of
needs for later
Personality is a dynamic system which is directed
by 3 mental structures:
- Id: Unconscious irrational & self-serving impulses;
needs immediate gratification
- Ego: Regulates Id’s need-gratification, in touch with
reality, thinking, planning & problem-solving system;
conscious control of the self
- Superego: Adhere to society’s standards and punish
the person with guilt for not obeying standards
26. Psychoanalytic approach [4]
These systems regulate the way energy is
used & expressed
Most behaviour involves these systems
Dynamic balance of power between the Id,
ego & superego
27. Psychoanalytic approach
Personality structure
These systems regulate the way energy is
used & expressed
Most behaviour involves these systems
Dynamic balance of power between the Id,
ego & superego
Read “Personality structure”
p. 194 – 195 for the textbook’s explanation
28. The Id
Innate, primitive component of the psyche
Has direct contact with the body – attains energy
from it
Energy linked o the drives
Drives:
- Life drives (Eros) = Sex drive
- Death drives (Thanatos)
Id functions according to the:
- PRIMARY PROCESSES
- PLEASURE PRINCIPLES
29. Characteristics of the Id
Seeks immediate & complete satisfaction of its
drive
Only consider its immediate pleasure
Primary processes indicates that its NOT capable
of thought, self-reflection or planning
Selfish & unrealistic
Not capable of satisfaction because lack of contact
with the external environment
Wish fulfillment by creating images of desired
objects & fantasising
Note: hunger cannot be fulfilled that way, need
actual food for survival
30. The ego
Develops from the ID, because it is
necessary for the individual’s survival
Formed with the person’s contact with the
outside world
It serves the Id’s needs by finding suitable
objects to satisfy the Id’s drives
However, functions according to the:
- SECONDARY PROCESS
- REALITY PRINCIPLE
31. Characteristics of the ego
Ego evaluates and weighs up an action before
taken
Reflect upon, plan & postpone the satisfaction to an
appropriate time & place
Reality principle: Takes physical & social reality
into account by using conscious & preconscious
cognitive processes such as:
- sensory perception
- rational thinking
- memory & learning
Conscious control of
the personality
32. Demands on the ego
Executor of the Id’s wishes
Experience constant pleasure from the Id, but also
accommodate all the demands of the physical environment &
moral codes from society!
“Executive official” who operates i.t.o 3 briefs: the Id, physical
reality & the superego
Id threatens ego with discomfort if drives not satisfied &
superego threatens the ego with punishment and guilt
Conflicting demands from both
Starts developing from 1st yr of life, gain experience, learns
new way of drive satisfaction
33. The superego
Develops from the ego
Representative of Behavioural
& moral codes of society
Functions according to the:
- MORAL PRINCIPLE
- Punishes the individual with guilt
= Freud, conscience = ego ideal
Exercise pressure on the ego – requires energy – attains
energy also from the Id = aggressive drive = Thanatos
A weak superego can lead to antisocial behaviour
A too strong superego can lead to inhibition, rigidity &
excessive guilt
34. Superego [2]
Superego functions on all the conscious levels
Result: person feels guilty consciously about drives
& wishes which occurs on the PRECONSCIOUS
level
Thus, superego pressurise the ego to keep
forbidden drives UNCONSCIOUS
To protect from anxiety of guilt = defense
mechanism
Freud: all anxiety, conflict & neurosis based on
above CONFLICT
35. Psychoanalytic approach
Personality development
The core of personality developed before the
age of 6
Develop through psycho-sexual stages
Stages focus on the body part which
produces the most pleasure
Personality traits depend on the specific
emotional conflict experienced at that stage
1st years of life shape adult personality
36. Behaviourist approach
Behaviour is a collection of learned behaviours
Personality is acquired through classical & operant
conditioning
Thus, through observation, reinforcement;
extinction, generalisation & stimulus discrimination
Reject the idea of personality traits
Interested in situational determinants of behaviour
(environmental & social factors)
Are not interested in experience & its influence
Interested in “prior learning”
37. Behaviourist approach [2]
Social learning theory interested in:
- Psychological situation: person’s
particular interpretation & understanding of a
situation
- Expectancy: anticipation that behaviour
will lead to reinforcement
- Reinforcement values: people attach
different values to various activities & rewards
- Self-reinforcement: praising or rewarding
yourself for a particular behaviour
38. Behaviourist view of development
Childhood involves active drives, powerful rewards,
punishments and frustrations
Social reinforcement based on praise, attention &
approval is important in the shape of the personality
Identification & imitation contribute to development
of personality
Identification: a person’s emotional attachment to
someone they admire
Imitation: a desire to act like the admired person
Gender traits is the result of the attempt to imitate
the same-sex parent with whom they identify
39.
40.
41. Humanist approach
Focus on human experience, problems, potential
and ideals
Focus on the unique qualities of humans, their
freedom & potential for growth
What does it mean to be a person?
Positive image of what it means to be a person
People are conscious, rational & have control over
their impulses
Study people holistically
Subjective experiences are important
Thus, a person is a product of the choices he/she
makes in life
42. Carl Rogers’ person-centred
theory
People are understood from their internal frame of
reference
Emphasis a person’s subjective point of view
Fully functioning person = a person is in harmony
with his deepest feelings & impulses
Become fully functioning if person receives a lot of
love & acceptance from others
NB concept = the self = changing perception of a
person’s identity
Self is made up of experiences of own perception of
ourselves = self-concept
Behaviour is the result of attempts to have a
balance between our self-concept & our actions =
real self
43. Carl Rogers’ person-centred
theory [2]
Experiences which matches with self-concept leads
to changes in self = congruent self-concept
Sometimes a gap between self-concept & reality =
incongruent self-concept
Incongruence can lead to dissatisfaction with self or
adjustment problems
Essential to have an ideal-self: image of the
person you would like to be
The bigger the gap between self-concept & ideal
self, the more tension & anxiety experienced –
depressed, anxious & insecure
The smaller the gap = confident, resourceful
44. Maslow & self-actualisation
Belief in fully developing human potential = strive
for self-actualisation
Living creatively & to full potential
Behaviour is motivated by needs, arranged
hierarchically
As soon as needs are met person can move higher
up to fulfilling the next need
Self-actualising people have healthy personalities:
open, spontaneous, clear perception of reality,
independent, sensitive to needs of others, good
interpersonal relationships
“Develop your potential”: self-study p.199
46. Biological approach
20th century: Believed certain regions of the
brain control specific psychological functions
Heredity shapes personality: inborn
behavioural tendencies that differ
Evidence in temperament of babies
Temperament determines how an infant
respond to other people & vice versa
Influence development of personality traits
like introversion & extroversion
47. Biological approach [2]
Hans Eysenck (1967) personality are
determined by genes – some people are
more easily conditioned than others
Evidence in studies of twins, separated at
birth and then reunited (self study, p.201)
48. African perspectives
Psychological knowledge based on western
views
Cross-cultural studies focus on how people
view them-selves i.t.o. their relationships to
others
49. Western views African views
Individualistic: people are Collectivist: people are
independent interdependent
Individual for basis of People are part of the cosmos
understanding behaviour & the community
Behaviour is the result of Community shapes behaviour
internal factors, needs &
wishes of individual
Behaviour is the result of
external factors, supernatural
powers, not themselves
51. Criteria: Abnormal behaviour
Behaviour: abnormal when it deviates from typical
behaviour or the norm
Abnormal behaviour can be expressed in:
- Inaccurate ways of thinking
- emotional instability
- difficult interpersonal behaviour
- poor impulse control
Abnormal behaviour deviates from culturally
accepted standards
Look @ context where behaviour occurs before
deciding on normal or not
Thus, abnormality not the only criteria psychological
disorders
52. Criteria: Maladaptiveness
Wrong adapting – result in not functioning
well in society
Maladaptive if your behaviour disrupts your
life
Behaviour is inflexible, irrespective of the
situation
Inflexibility interfere with a person’s ability to
adjust successfully to the demands of life
53. Criteria: Personal distress
Feelings of anxiety, depression or other
unpleasant emotions
However, not sufficient criteria for
determining the presence of psych disorder
NB! Abnormal, maladaptive & personal
distress might mean psych disorder, but not
necessarily insanity!
55. Biological viewpoint
Favours biological causes for psych
disorders
Interested in the role of heredity , brain
structures, brain activity & brain chemistry in
the development of psych disorders (called PD
from this point on)
Psych disorders have successfully been
treated with psychotropic drugs
56. Psychoanalytic viewpoint
Look for unconscious causes
Believe that if drives are not expressed,
conflicts might be pushed form the
awareness to the unconscious
This lead to feelings of anxiety
Freud-NB of anxiety-provoking childhood
experiences in the development of PD
Therapy focus on identifying unconscious
thoughts & emotions to help people
understand their actions & thoughts
57. Behaviourist viewpoint
Look @ the environment & learning of
maladaptive behaviours as causes of PD
Bandura: observation of others’ abnormal,
maladaptive or distressing behaviour lead to
learning same styles, lead to PD
Treat through behaviour therapy – goals are
set & attempt to achieve goals through
learning new coping & constructive styles
58. Cognitive viewpoint
PD arise form maladaptive ways of thinking
about oneself & the world
Focus on thoughts & believes which underlie
emotional reactions
Concerned with present thinking, not past
experiences
Negative, distorted views result in negative
behaviours
Therapy – change thoughts & believes
59. Humanistic viewpoint
Focus on the fulfilment of potential – self-
actualisation
PD develops when people fail to reach their
potential, because of people who discourage
them to express true desires, thoughts &
interests
This distress caused by above lead to PD
Distress caused by imbalance between the
real self and the ideal self
People can solve own problems if freed from
other people’s influence
60. Community psych viewpoint
Focus on social, political & cultural context in
the development of PD
Need to consider social factors that impact
on mental health, e.g. socio-economic
environment & availability of resources,
cultural beliefs & practices
Read “conclusion” p.213
