This document summarizes the philosophies of John Austin and John Locke regarding language. John Austin analyzed language use and introduced the concept of speech acts, distinguishing locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. He argued that statements are not solely true or false, but also depend on context like intentions and understandings. John Locke viewed language and knowledge as tools for living rather than just speculation. He argued that probable knowledge is still useful, and that revelations cannot produce the same certainty as direct experience. Both philosophers emphasized understanding ordinary language use and its relationship to truth, knowledge, and human affairs.

1. MAJOR PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR
PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
WEEK-3
Dr. Samina Nadeem

2. John Langshaw Austin
1911 - 1960
• Ended tenure as White’s Professor of Moral
Philosophy in 1960
• Speech Acts
• Assessment of utterances as true and false –
determining truth conditions
• Works published posthumously based on
notes and lectures: a. Sense and Sensibilia
(1962a) b. How to do things with words
(1962b)

3. 1. Language and Philosophy
i. Language use is a central part of human activity
ii. The study of language is an aide – to the pursuit of
philosophical topics. [Austin applied the same
standards of truth and accuracy to a philosophical
argument – two nuances stand out a) liable to miss
distinctions that are made in our ordinary use of
language – expressions of illusion and delusion – to
hold, infer, show a property. b) “fact is richer than
diction” – “words are our tools ….. And we should use
clean tools” – our intents and purposes in speaking
(meeting Noam Chomsky in 1955)

4. 2. Language and Truth
• Making the same statement on repeatable
occasions/ variation in our intents and
purposes – true or false depends on in a way
that it is understood rather than articulated /
may change on different occasions

5. 3. Language and Speech Acts
• Any sentence can be used in performing a
variety of linguistic acts.
• The new model is founded on distinctions
among various kinds of things speakers do
- The locutionary act: an utterance that can be
classified by its phonetic, grammaticl and
lexical characteristics – performance of an act
by its content

6. Cont…
• The illocutionary act: classified by its content
(locutionary) but also by its force (stating,
warning, promising…) I promise that I’ll be
home for dinner (promise + statement)/ true-false
/ happy-unhappy etc
• The Perlocutionary act: an act classifiable by
its `….. Consequential effects upon feelings,
thoughts, actions “If I warn the ice is thin, I
may persuade someone to avoid it or
encourage someone to take a risk and so
forth..

7. Cont…
• “The truth or falsity of statement is affected
by what they leave out or put in and by their
being misleading and so on. … It is essential to
realize that true or false, like free – unfree do
not stand for anything simple at all; but only
for a general dimension of being a right and
proper thing to say as opposed to a wrong
thing, in these circumstances, to this
audience, for these purposes and with these
intentions.”

8. John Locke
1632 - 1704
• Human understanding; survey of our own
understanding – powers – to see what things
were they adapted, ……. To grasp decisions
and comprehension… Thus men extending
their enquiries beyond their capacities and
letting their thoughts wander into those
depths where they can find no sure footing

9. Knowledge and Probability
• Knowledge means agreement or
disagreement of ideas
• The understanding faculties are given for
conduct of his life and not only speculation
• Through probability, he checks his over-confidence
and presumption
• Probable knowledge produces knowledge,
argument that provides evidence that leads
the mind to judge a proposition

10. Reason, Faith and Enthusiasm
• Some things could be discovered both by
reason and by revelation
• Revelations about matters of fact do not
produce as much certainty as having the
experience oneself
• Education: preparing people to effectively
make decisions in their own lives – to engage
in individual self-government

11. Religious Tolerance
• Restoration – King Charles / Earl of Shaftsbury,
• God’s purposes: God created man and we are
in effect God’s property [murder and suicide
violate the divine purpose
• Only God can determine which is the true
church. Thus skepticism about the possibility
of religious knowledge is central to Locke’s
argument of religious toleration

12. Political Philosophy
• Governments were originally instituted by
force and that no agreement was involved
• Legitimate government is instituted by the
explicit consent of those governed.
• Pushes towards social contract; force by the
state to get people to hold certain beliefs or
engage in certain ceremonies or practices is
illegitimate

13. Tasks for Assignments
• Ordinary Language Philosophy & Ludwig
Wittgenstein
• Austin & John Searle
• Epistemology and philosophy
• Austin & Noam Chomsky
• John Locke and Political Philosophy

14. References
• J.L. Austin (1911 -1960) by Guy Longworth,
University of Warwick