This document discusses theories of language, specifically contrasting "enframing theories" with "constitutive theories". Enframing theories view language as explicable within a framework of human life conceived without language. Constitutive theories argue that language makes possible new purposes and meanings, transforming any framework and not explicable without language. The document also discusses how language plays a creative role in constituting meaning and our understanding of the world. It argues language opens us to new dimensions and ways of relating through meaning and description.
1. Sense relation is a paradigmatic relation between words or predicates that results from the semantic relatedness between forms and meanings.
2. There are several types of sense relations, including synonymy (words with the same meaning), polysemy (words with multiple meanings), hyponymy (more specific terms that fall under a more general term), and antonyms (words with opposite meanings).
3. Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Word meanings can be classified in different ways, including referential, associative, connotative, social, affective, and reflected meanings.
This document discusses the Scandinavian influence on Old English during the Viking Age from the 8th to 11th centuries. It notes that over 600 place names in England contain Scandinavian elements, indicating significant Viking settlement. Many everyday words were borrowed from Norse languages, including nouns like egg, fellow, leg; adjectives like weak, odd; and verbs like to call, get, lift. Both languages existed side by side and some words were adopted while others were replaced over time. The borrowing of functional words like pronouns and prepositions suggests intimate contact between the languages. Overall, the document analyzes linguistic evidence of Norse cultural and linguistic impacts during the period of Scandinavian invasions and settlement in Britain.
The document discusses the history and evolution of languages over time. It describes how Proto-Indo-European was identified as the common ancestor of many European and Indian languages based on similarities between their vocabularies and grammars. It also discusses methods of reconstructing earlier forms of words by comparing cognates across related languages and identifying common sound changes. As an example, it summarizes the major periods in the history of English from Old English to Modern English and some of the phonetic changes that occurred between each period like the loss of the letters þ and ð.
The document discusses the relationship between language and identity. It explains that identity is multifaceted and expressed through factors like accent, vocabulary, and naming practices. How people address each other and what pronouns they use can indicate social relationships and group membership. Language use helps people both construct their own identities and categorize others as belonging to certain social groups or not. Identity involves complex interactions between individual, social, and political identities shaped by language.
This document discusses language planning, which involves creating policies to direct or change language use. It defines language planning as attempts to modify a language's status or internal condition. The document outlines reasons for language planning like maintaining linguistic identities. It also describes the key concepts of status planning, which changes a language's function and rights, and corpus planning, which develops a language. Finally, it discusses four common ideologies and the four stages of language planning: selection, codification, modernization, and implementation.
The document discusses four main theories of first language acquisition: structuralism, transformationalism, functionalism, and interactionism. Structuralists view language as a system of observable structures and believe language can be learned by studying these systems. Transformationalists believe language is innate and universal. Functionalists see language as a tool for communication and prioritize teaching language functions. Interactionists view language as a social tool used to establish relationships through conversation.
This document provides information about Romantic poetry and poets. It discusses the background of Romanticism as an artistic movement in Europe between 1770-1850 that transformed styles and practices. Some of the major Romantic poets mentioned include William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, and P.B. Shelley. It also defines Romanticism as emphasizing nature, emotion, imagination, individual expression, and rebellion against conventions. Key features of Romantic poetry are described as breaking from rules, interest in nature, simplicity, subjectivity, imagination, and emotions.
The document discusses the concept of pragmatic equivalence in translation, which focuses on conveying the intended meaning of a text for a new target readership rather than treating a text as a static object. It explains that coherence and implicature help readers and translators understand how a text makes sense based on context. Several factors are described that can impact a text's coherence for different readers based on their background knowledge and experiences.
1. Sense relation is a paradigmatic relation between words or predicates that results from the semantic relatedness between forms and meanings.
2. There are several types of sense relations, including synonymy (words with the same meaning), polysemy (words with multiple meanings), hyponymy (more specific terms that fall under a more general term), and antonyms (words with opposite meanings).
3. Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Word meanings can be classified in different ways, including referential, associative, connotative, social, affective, and reflected meanings.
This document discusses the Scandinavian influence on Old English during the Viking Age from the 8th to 11th centuries. It notes that over 600 place names in England contain Scandinavian elements, indicating significant Viking settlement. Many everyday words were borrowed from Norse languages, including nouns like egg, fellow, leg; adjectives like weak, odd; and verbs like to call, get, lift. Both languages existed side by side and some words were adopted while others were replaced over time. The borrowing of functional words like pronouns and prepositions suggests intimate contact between the languages. Overall, the document analyzes linguistic evidence of Norse cultural and linguistic impacts during the period of Scandinavian invasions and settlement in Britain.
The document discusses the history and evolution of languages over time. It describes how Proto-Indo-European was identified as the common ancestor of many European and Indian languages based on similarities between their vocabularies and grammars. It also discusses methods of reconstructing earlier forms of words by comparing cognates across related languages and identifying common sound changes. As an example, it summarizes the major periods in the history of English from Old English to Modern English and some of the phonetic changes that occurred between each period like the loss of the letters þ and ð.
The document discusses the relationship between language and identity. It explains that identity is multifaceted and expressed through factors like accent, vocabulary, and naming practices. How people address each other and what pronouns they use can indicate social relationships and group membership. Language use helps people both construct their own identities and categorize others as belonging to certain social groups or not. Identity involves complex interactions between individual, social, and political identities shaped by language.
This document discusses language planning, which involves creating policies to direct or change language use. It defines language planning as attempts to modify a language's status or internal condition. The document outlines reasons for language planning like maintaining linguistic identities. It also describes the key concepts of status planning, which changes a language's function and rights, and corpus planning, which develops a language. Finally, it discusses four common ideologies and the four stages of language planning: selection, codification, modernization, and implementation.
The document discusses four main theories of first language acquisition: structuralism, transformationalism, functionalism, and interactionism. Structuralists view language as a system of observable structures and believe language can be learned by studying these systems. Transformationalists believe language is innate and universal. Functionalists see language as a tool for communication and prioritize teaching language functions. Interactionists view language as a social tool used to establish relationships through conversation.
This document provides information about Romantic poetry and poets. It discusses the background of Romanticism as an artistic movement in Europe between 1770-1850 that transformed styles and practices. Some of the major Romantic poets mentioned include William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, and P.B. Shelley. It also defines Romanticism as emphasizing nature, emotion, imagination, individual expression, and rebellion against conventions. Key features of Romantic poetry are described as breaking from rules, interest in nature, simplicity, subjectivity, imagination, and emotions.
The document discusses the concept of pragmatic equivalence in translation, which focuses on conveying the intended meaning of a text for a new target readership rather than treating a text as a static object. It explains that coherence and implicature help readers and translators understand how a text makes sense based on context. Several factors are described that can impact a text's coherence for different readers based on their background knowledge and experiences.
This document discusses words, sentences, and dictionaries. It makes several key points:
- Words can be the basic building blocks of language and sentences, but a sentence does not always need multiple words and can consist of a single word command.
- There is a distinction between a word as a type and its occurrences as tokens. The same word can appear as different tokens in a sentence.
- Not all words have unpredictable meanings that need to be defined in a dictionary. Some words have predictable meanings based on their sounds.
- Idioms and phrases can have meanings that are unpredictable from the individual words. Larger linguistic units like proverbs can also have non-literal meanings.
- Not
Traditional grammar refers to the prescriptive rules of grammar commonly taught in schools, which are largely based on Latin grammar rather than modern linguistic research. It focuses on distinguishing "correct" versus "incorrect" language usage according to established standards. While traditional grammar aims to perpetuate proper language, it lacks a theoretical framework and is inadequate for describing all languages. However, it remains widely used in language education due to its influence on educational systems.
Ferdinand De Saussure vs Noam Chomsky Abdul Darhal
Noam Chomsky is considered the father of modern linguistics. He proposed the theory of Universal Grammar, which suggests that all humans are born with an innate Language Acquisition Device that allows them to learn any human language. According to Chomsky, this disproves behaviorist claims that language learning is based solely on habit formation and environment. Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar using concepts like deep structure and surface structure. Ferdinand de Saussure is considered the father of modern linguistics. He introduced important linguistic concepts like the distinction between langue and parole, the linguistic sign made up of the signifier and signified, and the difference between the synchronic and diachronic approaches to studying language.
This document discusses the relationship between language and culture. It makes three key points:
1) Language is the primary means of transmitting culture from one generation to the next and helps establish shared cultural identities.
2) The structure of a language influences how its speakers view and categorize the world, as demonstrated by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Different languages encourage different conceptualizations.
3) Culture strongly influences language acquisition and use, affecting vocabulary, social conventions around self-reference, and high- versus low-context communication styles. Language both shapes and is shaped by the cultures of its speakers.
There are several stages of first language learning: pre-babbling, babbling, naming, telegraphic, and transformational. In the pre-babbling stage, babies learn to recognize voices from before birth. Babbling occurs from 4-6 months as babies experiment with sounds. During naming, babies begin using one-word utterances around 12 months. The telegraphic stage at 2 years involves 2-3 word phrases. Finally, the transformational stage at 2.5-3 years incorporates morphemes into more complex utterances.
Translation theory before the 20th centuryAyesha Mir
This document summarizes the history of the debate between "word-for-word" and "sense-for-sense" translation. It discusses views from influential historical figures like Cicero, St. Jerome, Dryden, Dolet, Tytler, and Schleiermacher. The debate dominated translation theory until the 20th century. Schleiermacher is noted as moving the discussion beyond the word-for-word vs. sense-for-sense dichotomy by proposing two paths for the translator: moving the reader toward the writer or moving the writer toward the reader.
Issues of identity in a multicultural societyTehreemSajjad3
This document discusses issues of identity in multicultural societies. It defines a multicultural society as one where people of different religions, ethnicities, languages, and nationalities live together. It then examines what makes up a person's identity, such as religion, ethnicity, language, values and beliefs. For multicultural individuals, key issues are accepting new differences, maintaining aspects of their old identity while adopting new ones, and having a changing identity that is open to variation. The document also discusses challenges that can arise in multicultural societies from differences in identities, like religious conflicts, intolerance, language and education problems, and risks of social conflicts. It concludes by suggesting ways to overcome these issues, such as respecting others, confronting discrimination
This detailed presentation gives a clear overview of the evolution of the English language throughout the ages.
Including the Old English, Middle English, Early Modern, Modern and Late Modern periods, the slideshow covers contextual elements, key features of language, key dates and examples of text for each.
Bullet points and images and a nice layout make the presentation concise and simple, while still containing a lot of information.
This presentation is suitable for English language A-level at A2 level (made for the WJEC A2 exam)
Correction: Old English example text states that the Anglo Saxon Chronicle was written in the 19th century. This is a typo - it was actually the 9th century!
Ferdinand de Saussure was a pioneer in modern linguistics who viewed language as a system of arbitrary signs. He made an important distinction between langue (the abstract system of a language) and parole (individual usage). Saussure also differentiated between the synchronic study of language at a single point in time versus the diachronic study of language evolution over time. His work emphasized analyzing the langue through its sign relationships and structure at a fixed time period, establishing linguistics as a formal, scientific discipline.
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The main focus of this textbook is theoretical linguistics, which aims to explain the nature and structure of all human languages. The interest in human language arose when humans evolved. All cultures that left records show interest in language either philosophically or practically. Theoretical linguistics is concerned with revealing the nature of the mental grammar that represents a speaker's knowledge of their language.
This document defines morphology and discusses the key concepts in word structure and formation. It explains that morphology studies the structure of words and how new words are derived. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning, and can be free or bound. Free morphemes stand alone as words, while bound morphemes like prefixes and suffixes must be attached to other morphemes. The document also distinguishes between inflectional and derivational morphemes and their functions in language.
Linguistic theories approaches and methodsEsraaAlobali
This document outlines several linguistic theories and approaches, including:
- Structuralism founded by Ferdinand de Saussure which views language as a system of signs.
- American structuralism which took a behaviorist approach and focused on observable patterns.
- Generative grammar by Noam Chomsky which aims to explain a speaker's innate linguistic knowledge.
- Cognitive approaches like prototype theory and conceptual metaphor theory which see language as reflecting mental representations.
- Psycholinguistic approaches which study language production and comprehension processes.
- Corpus-based approaches which use large text databases to analyze authentic language usage.
The preeceding disscusion of language contact shows that multilingualism involves not only a division of labor but also a great deal of give and take between languages.
The document discusses various key concepts in semantics, including:
- Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted.
- Semantic roles describe the functions that words play in sentences, such as agent, theme, and experiencer.
- Relationships between words include synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophony, and polysemy. Synonyms have similar meanings, antonyms have opposite meanings, hyponyms have a broader term that includes them, and polysemy refers to a word having multiple related meanings.
- Richard Montague pioneered formal semantics which used logic to represent meanings of sentences. Semantics analyzes meaning at various linguistic levels
This document discusses dialects and their development. It defines dialects as mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ systematically. Dialects are not inferior versions of a language, as a language consists of many dialects. Regional dialects develop differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar based on geographic location. Accents reveal information about a speaker's background, while social dialects are influenced by factors like age, gender, and social situation. Standard languages aim to prevent differentiation, but many dialects like Cajun English have been banned despite being legitimate forms of communication.
A translation unit is defined as a segment of text that the translator treats as a single cognitive unit to establish equivalence between the source and target text. The translation unit can be a single word, phrase, sentence, or larger text segment. Using larger translation units increases the chance of an idiomatic translation. The notion of a translation unit is useful for relating parts of the text to the whole and looking at accountability of passages. Key functions of a translation unit are to be a syntactic bearer, information carrier, and stylistic marker. The sentence is generally considered the key functional translation unit.
Kachru developed the Three Circle Model of World Englishes which classifies varieties of English into Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle. The Inner Circle refers to countries where English is the primary language such as the UK, US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The Outer Circle includes countries that were former British colonies where English has an important status though it is not the primary language. The Expanding Circle consists of countries where English is taught as a foreign language like China, Japan, and Poland. However, Crystal criticized that the model cannot fully represent the dynamic realities of how English is used globally.
This document discusses regional dialects and social dialects. It defines regional dialects as varieties of a language associated with a particular geographical area. Regional dialects can differ in pronunciation, word choices, and syntax. Social dialects are varieties associated with particular social groups or classes defined by factors like occupation, education, income, and ethnicity. The way people speak can provide clues to their social background. Certain linguistic features are used more frequently by some social groups than others.
THIS THE THEORY OF OGDEN AND RICHARDS ON THE MEANING. it extract from their book of meaning of meaning. in which they discussed about the semantics triangle.
This document discusses different perspectives on the nature and scope of linguistic description. It summarizes Chomsky's view that language is an innate cognitive ability and reflects universal features of the human mind. However, it also discusses alternative views that see language as serving social functions of communication and control. Specifically, it outlines Halliday's view that language has ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. The document also discusses the need to view linguistic competence as including both abstract knowledge and the ability to use that knowledge communicatively according to social conventions. Finally, it defines the concepts of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships that describe how linguistic units combine horizontally in language.
The document provides an overview of Cognitive Linguistics, which emerged in the 1970s as an alternative to generative linguistics. It discusses three main approaches in Cognitive Linguistics: the Experiential view, Prominence view, and Attentional view. Key principles of Cognitive Linguistics are that language is grounded in human experience and conceptual categories reflect how people categorize the world based on perception and cognition. Meaning comes from human conceptualization rather than being defined objectively.
This document discusses words, sentences, and dictionaries. It makes several key points:
- Words can be the basic building blocks of language and sentences, but a sentence does not always need multiple words and can consist of a single word command.
- There is a distinction between a word as a type and its occurrences as tokens. The same word can appear as different tokens in a sentence.
- Not all words have unpredictable meanings that need to be defined in a dictionary. Some words have predictable meanings based on their sounds.
- Idioms and phrases can have meanings that are unpredictable from the individual words. Larger linguistic units like proverbs can also have non-literal meanings.
- Not
Traditional grammar refers to the prescriptive rules of grammar commonly taught in schools, which are largely based on Latin grammar rather than modern linguistic research. It focuses on distinguishing "correct" versus "incorrect" language usage according to established standards. While traditional grammar aims to perpetuate proper language, it lacks a theoretical framework and is inadequate for describing all languages. However, it remains widely used in language education due to its influence on educational systems.
Ferdinand De Saussure vs Noam Chomsky Abdul Darhal
Noam Chomsky is considered the father of modern linguistics. He proposed the theory of Universal Grammar, which suggests that all humans are born with an innate Language Acquisition Device that allows them to learn any human language. According to Chomsky, this disproves behaviorist claims that language learning is based solely on habit formation and environment. Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar using concepts like deep structure and surface structure. Ferdinand de Saussure is considered the father of modern linguistics. He introduced important linguistic concepts like the distinction between langue and parole, the linguistic sign made up of the signifier and signified, and the difference between the synchronic and diachronic approaches to studying language.
This document discusses the relationship between language and culture. It makes three key points:
1) Language is the primary means of transmitting culture from one generation to the next and helps establish shared cultural identities.
2) The structure of a language influences how its speakers view and categorize the world, as demonstrated by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Different languages encourage different conceptualizations.
3) Culture strongly influences language acquisition and use, affecting vocabulary, social conventions around self-reference, and high- versus low-context communication styles. Language both shapes and is shaped by the cultures of its speakers.
There are several stages of first language learning: pre-babbling, babbling, naming, telegraphic, and transformational. In the pre-babbling stage, babies learn to recognize voices from before birth. Babbling occurs from 4-6 months as babies experiment with sounds. During naming, babies begin using one-word utterances around 12 months. The telegraphic stage at 2 years involves 2-3 word phrases. Finally, the transformational stage at 2.5-3 years incorporates morphemes into more complex utterances.
Translation theory before the 20th centuryAyesha Mir
This document summarizes the history of the debate between "word-for-word" and "sense-for-sense" translation. It discusses views from influential historical figures like Cicero, St. Jerome, Dryden, Dolet, Tytler, and Schleiermacher. The debate dominated translation theory until the 20th century. Schleiermacher is noted as moving the discussion beyond the word-for-word vs. sense-for-sense dichotomy by proposing two paths for the translator: moving the reader toward the writer or moving the writer toward the reader.
Issues of identity in a multicultural societyTehreemSajjad3
This document discusses issues of identity in multicultural societies. It defines a multicultural society as one where people of different religions, ethnicities, languages, and nationalities live together. It then examines what makes up a person's identity, such as religion, ethnicity, language, values and beliefs. For multicultural individuals, key issues are accepting new differences, maintaining aspects of their old identity while adopting new ones, and having a changing identity that is open to variation. The document also discusses challenges that can arise in multicultural societies from differences in identities, like religious conflicts, intolerance, language and education problems, and risks of social conflicts. It concludes by suggesting ways to overcome these issues, such as respecting others, confronting discrimination
This detailed presentation gives a clear overview of the evolution of the English language throughout the ages.
Including the Old English, Middle English, Early Modern, Modern and Late Modern periods, the slideshow covers contextual elements, key features of language, key dates and examples of text for each.
Bullet points and images and a nice layout make the presentation concise and simple, while still containing a lot of information.
This presentation is suitable for English language A-level at A2 level (made for the WJEC A2 exam)
Correction: Old English example text states that the Anglo Saxon Chronicle was written in the 19th century. This is a typo - it was actually the 9th century!
Ferdinand de Saussure was a pioneer in modern linguistics who viewed language as a system of arbitrary signs. He made an important distinction between langue (the abstract system of a language) and parole (individual usage). Saussure also differentiated between the synchronic study of language at a single point in time versus the diachronic study of language evolution over time. His work emphasized analyzing the langue through its sign relationships and structure at a fixed time period, establishing linguistics as a formal, scientific discipline.
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The main focus of this textbook is theoretical linguistics, which aims to explain the nature and structure of all human languages. The interest in human language arose when humans evolved. All cultures that left records show interest in language either philosophically or practically. Theoretical linguistics is concerned with revealing the nature of the mental grammar that represents a speaker's knowledge of their language.
This document defines morphology and discusses the key concepts in word structure and formation. It explains that morphology studies the structure of words and how new words are derived. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning, and can be free or bound. Free morphemes stand alone as words, while bound morphemes like prefixes and suffixes must be attached to other morphemes. The document also distinguishes between inflectional and derivational morphemes and their functions in language.
Linguistic theories approaches and methodsEsraaAlobali
This document outlines several linguistic theories and approaches, including:
- Structuralism founded by Ferdinand de Saussure which views language as a system of signs.
- American structuralism which took a behaviorist approach and focused on observable patterns.
- Generative grammar by Noam Chomsky which aims to explain a speaker's innate linguistic knowledge.
- Cognitive approaches like prototype theory and conceptual metaphor theory which see language as reflecting mental representations.
- Psycholinguistic approaches which study language production and comprehension processes.
- Corpus-based approaches which use large text databases to analyze authentic language usage.
The preeceding disscusion of language contact shows that multilingualism involves not only a division of labor but also a great deal of give and take between languages.
The document discusses various key concepts in semantics, including:
- Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted.
- Semantic roles describe the functions that words play in sentences, such as agent, theme, and experiencer.
- Relationships between words include synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, homophony, and polysemy. Synonyms have similar meanings, antonyms have opposite meanings, hyponyms have a broader term that includes them, and polysemy refers to a word having multiple related meanings.
- Richard Montague pioneered formal semantics which used logic to represent meanings of sentences. Semantics analyzes meaning at various linguistic levels
This document discusses dialects and their development. It defines dialects as mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ systematically. Dialects are not inferior versions of a language, as a language consists of many dialects. Regional dialects develop differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar based on geographic location. Accents reveal information about a speaker's background, while social dialects are influenced by factors like age, gender, and social situation. Standard languages aim to prevent differentiation, but many dialects like Cajun English have been banned despite being legitimate forms of communication.
A translation unit is defined as a segment of text that the translator treats as a single cognitive unit to establish equivalence between the source and target text. The translation unit can be a single word, phrase, sentence, or larger text segment. Using larger translation units increases the chance of an idiomatic translation. The notion of a translation unit is useful for relating parts of the text to the whole and looking at accountability of passages. Key functions of a translation unit are to be a syntactic bearer, information carrier, and stylistic marker. The sentence is generally considered the key functional translation unit.
Kachru developed the Three Circle Model of World Englishes which classifies varieties of English into Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle. The Inner Circle refers to countries where English is the primary language such as the UK, US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The Outer Circle includes countries that were former British colonies where English has an important status though it is not the primary language. The Expanding Circle consists of countries where English is taught as a foreign language like China, Japan, and Poland. However, Crystal criticized that the model cannot fully represent the dynamic realities of how English is used globally.
This document discusses regional dialects and social dialects. It defines regional dialects as varieties of a language associated with a particular geographical area. Regional dialects can differ in pronunciation, word choices, and syntax. Social dialects are varieties associated with particular social groups or classes defined by factors like occupation, education, income, and ethnicity. The way people speak can provide clues to their social background. Certain linguistic features are used more frequently by some social groups than others.
THIS THE THEORY OF OGDEN AND RICHARDS ON THE MEANING. it extract from their book of meaning of meaning. in which they discussed about the semantics triangle.
This document discusses different perspectives on the nature and scope of linguistic description. It summarizes Chomsky's view that language is an innate cognitive ability and reflects universal features of the human mind. However, it also discusses alternative views that see language as serving social functions of communication and control. Specifically, it outlines Halliday's view that language has ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. The document also discusses the need to view linguistic competence as including both abstract knowledge and the ability to use that knowledge communicatively according to social conventions. Finally, it defines the concepts of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships that describe how linguistic units combine horizontally in language.
The document provides an overview of Cognitive Linguistics, which emerged in the 1970s as an alternative to generative linguistics. It discusses three main approaches in Cognitive Linguistics: the Experiential view, Prominence view, and Attentional view. Key principles of Cognitive Linguistics are that language is grounded in human experience and conceptual categories reflect how people categorize the world based on perception and cognition. Meaning comes from human conceptualization rather than being defined objectively.
One of the most fundamental questions asked in Philosophy of Language is "What is language (in general terms)?"
According to semiotics (the study of sign processes in communication, and of how meaning is constructed and understood), language is the mere manipulation and use of symbols in order to draw attention to signified content, in which case humans would not be the sole possessors of language skills.
This document discusses several key aspects of language:
1. Language is rule-governed through grammar and vocabulary. Rules help determine meaning and structure.
2. Language is intended for communication, though not all communication is linguistic. Language conveys intended meanings.
3. Language is creative and open-ended. Its rules allow for new sentences and an infinite number of grammatically correct combinations, adding new words over time.
4. The nature and meaning of language involves interpretation and is problematic due to vagueness, ambiguity, and metaphorical/ironic uses that add layers of possible meanings.
An Analysis Of The Differences Between Language Ideology And Language Practic...Sara Alvarez
This document discusses the complex relationship between language ideology and language practice. It begins by noting that ideology and practice are often viewed as separate entities, but some scholars see them as mutually dependent. It then examines different definitions of language ideology, including supra-linguistic ideology (about language in general), inner-linguistic ideology (within specific languages), and language policy (about individual languages). The document also discusses how social indexical theory views individuals' choices in language variation and change as key to the relationship between ideology and practice. Overall, it argues that ideology and practice shape each other in complex ways.
This presentation takes the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze and formulates a 2 role model of affect from his philosophy. This model is applied to education and how one learns. The model deal with power and language in education.
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Pragmatics and Discourse , context & speech actsNaeemIqbal88
Pragmatics and Discourse
What is pragmatics?
An approach within DA which concentrates on the way language
acquires meaning in use. It has developed from the tradition of the
philosophy of language known as pragmatics.
Focus: The study of contextualised meaning and is concerned with
describing the principles that underlie how we interpret the meaning
behind words: how we get from what we say to what we mean.
Pragmatic approaches tend to be interested in the 'big picture': trying
to formulate generalisable principles about how people produce and
interpret discourse (eg’ the use of humour in business meetings’).
Context
Context is an important concept in DA. Language does not take place in a vacuum and we
need to consider the context in which it occurs in order to understand it.
However, this seemingly unproblematic statement masks the issues and debates that are
ongoing in discourse analysis around the concept of context and its significance.
Two types of context
The 'intrinsic' or 'linguistic' context which refers to information that can be found
within the text that surrounds the language that is being analysed at a particular
moment. It is generally agreed that this type of context is not only useful but essential.
The more problematic type of context lies outside the actual text: what is sometimes
called 'extrinsic' (Schegloff 1997) or 'experiential' context.
This refers to all sorts of information about setting, situation, social circumstances of the
participants such as age, gender, ethnicity and possibly also about the shared
background knowledge and assumptions of the participants.
So, in the example:
'Later, an item about vasectomy and the results of the do-it-yourself competition'
(from Cameron 2001:12)
 The issue with extrinsic context is moving from description to interpretation in
research. Along with describing 'what' is happening in the discourse , it is also
important to interpret 'why' it is happening.
 Extrinsic contextual evidence can be potentially very useful in discussing why
participants say a particular thing in a particular way at a particular time,
however, there is also a danger of 'reading too much into the text' and of
judging which out of many possible interpretations is the 'right' one.
For instance, if the analyst is aware of gender, age or ethic difference among
discourse participants, these variables may well appear to influence the
discourse but how do we know which of these particular variables are
important to the participants in an particular communicative event.
 This is not to say that we should ignore extrinsic context but to suggest that we
need to be cautious about what we select as significant and rigorous about how
we incorporate it into our analyses. Schegloff (1997) advises that the best
option is to use only what can be shown to be relevant to participants.
 Can you imagine a meaningful context for this text?
a. Which of you was the prawns?
No, No, No, No
Pragmatics cont...
Activity -2
Look at the following utterances and state the
implied meaning:
(1) A: ‘Do you have the time?’
B: ‘Sure, let me check’
(2) A: ‘Can you pass the salt?’
B: ‘Help yourself’
(3) A: ‘I’m freezing!’
B: ‘Then put on a sweater’
(4) A: ‘When will dinner be ready?’
B: ‘Soon, I promise’
Pragmatics cont...
Discourse
- Discourse analysis studies language use
beyond
No, No, No, No
Pragmatics cont...
Activity -2
Look at the following utterances and state the
implied meaning:
(1) A: ‘Do you have the time?’
B: ‘Sure, let me check’
(2) A: ‘Can you pass the salt?’
B: ‘Help yourself’
(3) A: ‘I’m freezing!’
B: ‘Then put on a sweater’
(4) A: ‘When will dinner be ready?’
B: ‘Soon, I promise’
Pragmatics cont...
Discourse
- Discourse refers to language use beyond the sentence
This document discusses several theories of meaning:
- Referential theory claims words refer to real objects, but some words like "nobody" have no referent.
- Use theory argues meaning depends on a word's conventional use rather than reference.
- Speech act theory proposes words can perform actions like promising or requesting.
- Hermeneutic theory interprets meaning through analyzing related concepts within a text.
- Postmodern theory rejects objective meanings and emphasizes context and interpretation.
A Sociological Hermeneutics For Schizophrenic LanguageKaela Johnson
This document summarizes Keith Doubt's article "A Sociological Hermeneutics for Schizophrenic Language". The article draws on Kenneth Burke's distinction between semantic and poetic meaning to develop a sociological framework for understanding schizophrenic language as symbolic social action, rather than just a symptom of pathology. It critiques views that see schizophrenic language as private and argues for recognizing people with schizophrenia as motivated social actors. The goal is to foster more inclusive interactions between those with and without schizophrenia.
Language plays a powerful role in transmitting knowledge from a very early age, but it does not completely control our other ways of knowing. While language can influence our perceptions and thoughts on subtle, unconscious levels, it is also influenced by perception, emotion, and reason. The relationship between language and our other ways of knowing is highly interconnected, with each having some impact on the others. The statement that language controls all other ways of knowing is an extreme view that does not fully consider the complex, two-way interactions between language and our senses, feelings, and logical reasoning.
This document provides an overview of a university course on critical literacy and interaction. It discusses several key topics:
- The relationship between identity, communication, and how we negotiate our identities through communication with others.
- The role of language and meaning-making in shaping our understanding of self and reality. Meaning is negotiated through social interactions and messages that help form our identities.
- An introduction to semiology, the study of signs and meanings. It explains concepts like the signifier, signified, and how we make meaning through a shared system of symbols and signs.
- Five basic principles of semiology, including that meaning depends on context and is relational between concepts. We engage in meaning-
APPLICATION OF DIMENSIONS OF MEANING ON JAMES JOYCE’S A PORTRAIT OF ARTIST AS...Fatima Gul
This document discusses key dimensions of meaning in semantics and applies them to analyze Chapter 1 of James Joyce's novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. It discusses several important dimensions of meaning, including reference and denotation, connotation, and sense relations. It then analyzes examples from Chapter 1, showing how characters and events reference real objects and concepts, and how different characters' views connote positive or negative associations. The analysis provides insight into how dimensions of meaning contribute to understanding the novel's communication of ideas.
This document provides definitions and background information on semantics, linguistics, and language. It discusses semantics as the study of meaning in language and how it relates to other fields like phonology and syntax. Linguistics is defined as the systematic study of language, including its structures, uses, development, and acquisition. Key points made include:
- Semantics studies the objective, conventional meanings of words, phrases, and sentences.
- Linguistics examines all aspects of language from sounds to meanings to uses.
- Language is an important tool for human communication and expression that contains cultural knowledge and experiences.
1. The document discusses the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which claims that the structure of a language influences how its speakers think and experience reality.
2. It presents the hypothesis as having both a strong version of linguistic determinism, where language completely determines thought, and a weaker version of linguistic relativity, where language influences but does not determine thought.
3. While widely criticized, the hypothesis highlights the complex relationship between language, thought, and culture, and that speakers of different languages may experience the world in different ways.
1. The document discusses the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which claims that the structure of a language influences how its speakers think and experience reality.
2. It presents the hypothesis as consisting of the strong version of linguistic determinism, which argues that language completely determines thought, and the weaker version of linguistic relativity, which argues that language strongly influences thought.
3. While influential, the hypothesis is criticized for being too extreme and for lacking clear evidence. Most linguists now accept that language influences thought in complex ways but does not completely determine it.
Features of Human Language:A Psycholinguistics PerspectiveZia Khan
Human language has several unique features that distinguish it from animal communication according to linguists. These include displacement, where humans can talk about things not present; semanticity, using words to represent meanings; creativity in forming new sentences; and structure dependence by following grammatical rules. The human brain processes language in a hierarchical way, first identifying sounds and words, then syntax, and finally semantics. Additionally, humans can speak about the past and future, imagine hypothetical scenarios, and use language as a symbolic, semiotic system to communicate beyond just words. The structural complexity of human language also allows people to reflect on and study language itself.
This document discusses the difference between sense and reference in language as introduced by philosopher Gottlob Frege. Frege was interested in differentiating between the terms "sense" and "reference" based on the observation that people continued to use the terms "morning star" and "evening star" to refer to the planet Venus, even after it was known to be the same astronomical object. The document explores applications of this distinction between sense and reference in literary interpretation, case teaching, and case-based research. It argues the distinction is important for understanding how to properly invoke and interpret cases for different purposes like teaching decision-making versus conducting research on strategy.
Similar to CHAPTER 1 : AN ISSUE ABOUT LANGUAGE (20)
2. This is a pre occupation going back to
the very beginning of our intellectual
tradition. Language is an old topic in
western philosophy, but its importance has
grown. All major philosophers have their
theories of language : Heidegger,
Wittgenstein, Davidson, and all manner of
“deconstructionists” have made language
central to their philosophical reflection.
3. We can cast light on this debate if we identify
two grands type of theory. The first is an enframing
theory. The attempt is made to understand
language within the framework of a picture of
human life, behaviour, purposes, or mental
functioning, which is itself described and defined
without reference to language.
The second is constitutive theory. It gives us
a picture of language as making possible new
purposes, new levels of behaviour, new meanings,
and hence as not explicable within a framework
picture of human life conceived without language.
4. Language plays an important role in this construction.
Words are given meaning by being attached to the things
represented via the “ideas” which represent them. The
introduction of words greatly facilities the combination of ideas
into a responsible picture.
This is the classical case of an enframing theory.
Language is understood in terms of certain elements : ideas,
signs, and their association, which precede its arising. Before
and after, the imagination is at work and association takes
place. We can surmise that it’s pricisely this continuity which
gives the theory its seeming clarity and explanatory power :
language is robbed of its mysterious character, is related to
elements that seem unproblematic.
5. Language involves sensitivity to the issue of
rightness. The rightness in the descriptive case turns on
the characteristics of the described.
The rightness involved in description is crucially
different. We can’t just define it in terms of success in
some task – unless we define this task itself in terms of
what it called above intrinsic rightness. In other word,
intrinstic righness is irreducible to what we might call task
rightness simpliciter : the account only works if we have
already incorporated intrinstic rightness in its success
criteria.
6. The language can’t be explained by the function it plays
within a pre- or extra-linguistically conceived framework of
human life, because language through constituting the
semantic dimension transforms any such framework, giving us
new feelings, new desires, new goals, new relationships, and
introducing a dimension of strong value. Language can only
be explained through a radical discontinuity with the extra-
linguistic.
Constitutive theory gave a creative role to expression. A
word is introduced by being linked with an idea, and
henceforth becomes capable of expressing it. In this way,
language makes possible science and enlightenment. But at
each stage of this process, the idea precedes its naming,
albeit its discriminability results from a previous act of naming.
7. Whereas to be sensitive to the issue of intrinstic
rightness is to be operating as it were, in another
dimension. Let it call this the “semantic dimension.” Then
we can say that properly linguistic beings are functioning in
the semantic dimension. And that can be our way of
formulating herder’s point about “reflection.” To be reflective
is to operate in this dimension, which means acting out of
sensitivity to issue of intrinstic rightness.
The semantic dimension also made the agent
capable of new kinds of relations, new sorts of footings that
agents can stand on with each other, of intimacy and
distance, hierarchy and equality.
No semantic dimension without language, if we
defined the semantic dimension as sensitivity to certain
issue concerning the right use of signs, then it follows
tautologically that it requires language to be.
8. But a more substantive point follows from this way of
seeing things. Being in semantic dimension means that we
can treat the things which surround us in nvew ways. We don’t
just respond to them in virtue of their relevance for our simple.
We are also capable of dealing with them as the proper
objects of certain descriptions.
The substantive point about language is an answer to
the question, whether things can have this meaning for us
without language.
Language is constitutive of reflection, and at the same
time, this shows how a constitutive theory of language breaks
out of the bounds of the enframing.
9. Meaning is being used in phenomenologically derived
sense introduced above. Something has meaning for us in this
sense when it has a certain significance or relevance in our
lives. The neologism will consist in using this as a count noun,
so that we can speak of the diffferent ways that things are
significant as different “meanings,” or speak of a new form of
significance as “a new meaning.”
The constitutive theory turns our attention toward the
creative dimension of expression, in which, to speak
paradoxically, it makes possible its own content. We can
actually see this in familiar, everyday realities, but it tends to be
screened out from the enframing perspective, and it took the
development of constitutive theories to bring it to light.
10. Being constitutive means that language makes
possible its own content, in a sense or opens us to the
domain it encodes. The two cases we have just looked at :
• Bodily expression and ordinary description,
• Seem to involve somewhat different form of this.
Language gives us access in a new ways to a range of
pre- existing things. The parallel between the two cases is
that in both language makes possible new meanings. The
new meaning is just things showing up as something.
The descriptive language invariably fits in the first
category, while expressive gesture makes up the second.
Many uses of descriptive language have primordially
existential import. New descriptive language lay out new
topographies, a new disposition of places, and a new
topography of the self can’t but have existensial import.
11. Impassivity is itself a form of projective
expression. And this claims amounts to more than an
arbitary reclassification, because describing is something
we do, and we project ourselves through what we do.
The expressive-constitutive outlook is leading us
rather far afield from the old enframing doctrine. It is
leading us to reconceive the scope of the phenomenon
which needs explanation.
12. Covert speech builds on the capacities acquired in
overt conversation. It has an inescapable expressive-
projective dimension, that’s what i’ve just been urging. The
first, and inescapable locus of language is in exchange
between interlocutors. Language involves certain kinds of
links with others. In particular, it involves the link of being a
conversational partner with somebody; let’s call this an
“interlocutor.” Standing to someone as an interlocutor is
fundamentally different from standing to him/her as an object
of obeservation, or manipulative interaction. Language marks
this most fundamental distinction in the different of persons.
13. An important issue for any theory of language is : what
difference it makes, if any, for our understanding of descriptive
speech that it is inescapably embedded in an activity which
has at least the two other features, that it has an expressive
dimension, and that it makes a huge difference. Not
acknowledging this has been fatal to a number of
contemporary theories.
Expressive-constitutive theories have generally thought
that it did make a difference, and some of the reasons they
did derive naturally from the considerations we’ve been
examining. These theories, as we saw, recognize the creative
role of expression. They recognize that expression can open
us to the range of meanings it articulates.
14. But implicit in this is the recognition that the constitutive
forms of expression, those which open us to a new range of
meanings, go beyond descriptive language, and even beyond
speech of any form, to such things as gesture and stance.
Provided we take the word “language” in a broad
sense, englobing all expressive forms, his world is as
linguistically constituted as that of the philosopher. That is just
to say that he lives in a human world. In its most unreflecting,
just-lived-in, underdescribed, Descriptive language doesn’t
erupt in a world of pure animal purposes. This is important to
bear in mind, both to understand the pre-objective world, and
to grasp the conditions in which descriptive language
operates.
15. From a constitutive perspective, this hypothesis seems
eminently plausible, but also one which will have greater force
in certain domains of language than others. It is therefore
surprising to see not only that a great deal of effort has been
expended in trying to refute it, but also that some of this has
concentrated on thecase of color concepts.
The evolution of living languages gives us fresh
examples of incommensurability. New generations arise, with
new practices, new ideals, new admired ways of being. Their
parents even may find it hard to see what they’re going on
about; grandparents are often completely baffled. If one
imagines going back farther, one can see that the
communication would be almost impossible.
16. For us, things in theworld, those which are neither
human beings, nor expressions of human beings, are
“outside” of mind. They may in their own way impinge on mind
– really, in two possible ways:
(1) We may observe these things, and therefore change our
view of the world, or be stirred up in ways that we
otherwise wouldn’t be.
(2) Since we are ourselves as bodies continuous with these
external things, and in constant exchange with them, and
since our mental condition is responsive causally to our
bodily condition in a host of ways (something we are aware
of without espousing any particular theory of what exactly
causes what), our strength – moods, motivations, and so
on – can be affected, and is continually being affected by
what happens outside.
17. Thought is the perceptions we have, as well
as the beliefs or propositions which we hold or
entertain about the world and ourselves. Now all this
has very important consequences for a whole way
we live our experinence.