This document discusses peer relationships and gender identity during adolescence. It covers how peers provide information and feedback outside the family. Peer influence can be positive or negative, and rejection leads to issues. Parents influence children's peers through lifestyle choices. Social cognition and emotions play roles in peer success. Bullying negatively impacts victims. Adolescent peer groups include both genders and conformity increases. Friendship provides companionship and intimacy increases in adolescence. Gender roles and stereotypes shape identities and behavior differently for males and females.

1. PSY 375:
LifespanDevelopment
Peer Relationships/
Gender Identity
Week 14

2. Exploring PeerRelations
Peers: individuals of about the same age or
maturity level
• Provide a source of information and comparison about the world outside the
family
• Also provide feedback about one’s abilities
Peer influence can be positive or negative
• Autonomy from peers predicts success in avoiding problem behaviors but
difficulty establishing strong friendships
• Rejection and neglect by peers leads to loneliness and hostility is linked to
mental health and criminal issues
• Peers can undermine parents’ values and control

3. Exploring PeerRelations
Parents may influence their children’s peer relationships
• Basic lifestyle decisions of parents largely determine the pool from which
children select possible friends
• Choice of neighborhood, church, school, and their own friends
Parent-child relationships influence children’s peer relations
• Children also learn other modes of relating through peer relationships

4. Exploring PeerRelations
Peer interaction is influenced by context
• Type of peer individual interacts with—acquaintance, crowd, clique,
friend, romantic partner
• Situation or location where peers interact—school, neighborhood,
community center, religious setting, etc.
Children encounter different messages and opportunities to
engage in adaptive or maladaptive behavior with peers

5. Exploring PeerRelations
Other factors that affect peer relations:
• Personality
• Emotionality
• Status/power of the other peer
Around age 3, children prefer to spend time with same-sex
playmates
• Preference increases in childhood
• Frequency of positive and negative peer interactions increases

6. Exploring PeerRelations
In early childhood, children distinguish between friends and
nonfriends
• Preschool children are more likely to have friends of a different gender and
ethnicity
In the elementary school years, reciprocity becomes important in peer
interchanges
Amount of time spent in peer interaction rises in middle and late
childhood and adolescence
• Size of peer groups increase
• Less closely supervised by adults

7. Exploring PeerRelations
Social cognition—thoughts about social matters—becomes
increasingly important for understanding peer relationships in middle
and late childhood
Steps in processing information about the social world:
• Selectively attend to social cues
• Attribute intent
• Generate goals
• Access behavioral scripts from memory
• Make decisions
• Enact behavior

8. Exploring PeerRelations
Social knowledge is involved in the ability to get along with peers
• What goals to pursue in ambiguous situations
• How to initiate and maintain a social bond
• What scripts to follow to befriend other children
Emotions play a strong role in determining whether peer
relations are successful
• Moody and emotionally negative children are often rejected
• Emotionally positive children are often popular

9. Bullying
Significant numbers of students are victimized by bullies
• Boys are more likely to be bullies than girls
• Gender differences regarding victims is less clear
Bullied children report more loneliness and more difficulty
making friends
• Often anxious, socially withdrawn, and aggressive

10. Bullying
Social contexts influence bullying
• 70% to 80% of victims and bullies are in the same classroom
• Classmates are often aware of and witness bullying
Bullies torment victims to gain a higher status in the peer group
Bullied children are more likely to experience depression, engage
in suicidal ideation, attempt suicide, and have weight problems
Cyberbullying is increasingly linked to stress and suicide

11. Adolescent PeerRelations
Adolescent peer groups are more likely to include both boys and
girls
• Standards of peer groups and the influence of cliques and crowds become
increasingly important
• Cliques: small groups that average about 5 or 6 individuals, are usually of
the same age and same sex, and often engage in similar activities
• Crowds: larger groups, many defined by activity; adolescents become
members based on reputation
Young adolescents conform more to peer standards than children

12. Friendship
Functions of friendship:
• Companionship
• Stimulation
• Ego support
• Social comparison
• Affection and intimacy
Intimacy in friendships is characterized by
self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts
• May not appear until early adolescence

13. Friendship During Childhood
Children’s friendship is characterized by similarity
• Age, sex, ethnicity, and many other factors
• Often similar attitudes toward school, similar educational aspirations,
and closely aligned achievement orientations
Developmental advantages occur when friends are socially
skilled, supportive, and oriented toward academic achievement
Coercive, conflict-ridden, and poor-quality friendships are not
developmentally advantageous

14. Friendship During Adolescence
Teenagers prefer a smaller number of friendships that are more
intense and intimate
Friends become especially important in meeting social needs in
adolescence
• Disclosing personal information to friends
• Depending more on friends than parents to satisfy
social needs
Girls’ friendships are more likely to focus on intimacy; boys’ emphasize
power and excitement
• Self-disclosure is not considered masculine

15. Friendship During Adolescence
Positive friendships are associated with positive outcomes
• Lower rates of delinquency, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior,
bullying, and victimization
• Higher levels of academic achievement and exercise
Peer rejection, having friends who are depressed, not having a
close relationship with a best friend, and less contact with
friends increase depression in adolescence

16. Friendship During Emerging Adulthood
Close relationships are more integrated and similar in emerging
adulthood than in adolescence
• Friends, family members, and romantic partners
Number of friendships declines from adolescence to emerging
adulthood
Best friendships may decline in satisfaction and commitment in
the first year of college
• Maintaining communication with high school friends and keeping the
same best friends lessens the decline

17. Adult Friendship
Friendship networks expand in early adulthood as new social
connections made away from home
New friendships are less likely to be forged in late adulthood
As they grow older, people choose close friends over new friends
• Content with several close people in their network

18. Stereotypes ofOlder Adults
Ageism: prejudice against others because of their age, especially
prejudice against older adults
• Older adults are often perceived as incapable of clear thinking, learning
new things, enjoying sex, contributing to the community, or holding
responsible jobs
• Many older adults face discrimination or are shunned socially
Ageism is widespread
• Most frequent form is disrespect for older adults, followed by assumptions
of ailments or frailty caused by age

19. OlderAdults: Social Support andSocial Integration
Social convoy model of social relations: individuals go through
life embedded in a personal network of individuals to whom they
give, and from which they receive, social support
Social support helps individuals cope with life challenges
For older adults, social support is related to their physical and
mental health as well as their life satisfaction

20. OlderAdults: Social Support andSocial Integration
Older adults with higher levels of social integration suffer less
from depression
Older adults report feeling less lonely than younger adults, likely
reflecting their more selective social networks and greater
acceptance of loneliness in life
Being lonely and socially isolated is a risk factor for older adults
• Health risks
• Earlier death

21. SuccessfulAging
Many abilities can be maintained or in some cases improved as
one ages, with the following:
• Proper diet
• Active lifestyle
• Mental stimulation and flexibility
• Positive coping skills
• Good social relationships and support
• Absence of disease

22. What is Culture? Definitions
Culture: A pattern of shared meaning and behavior
Cultural Intelligence: The ability and willingness to
apply cultural awareness to practical uses

23. What is Culture? Aspects
 Versatile
 Shared
 Cumulative
 Patterns

24. 3 common ways to think about culture

25. Studying Culture
Culture is a topic of research

26. Studying Culture
Cultural versus Cross-cultural Psychology

27. The Self and Culture
INDIVDIUALISM COLLECTIVISM
The self is unique The self is part of a group
The self is relatively stable across
situations
The self is relatively fluid across
situations
Personal goals and the opportunity to
express one’s self are important
Personal duties and group well-being
are important
USA, Canada, Germany Japan, Korea, Taiwan

28. The Self and Culture
Independent Self Interdependent Self
Trait focused Relationship focused
Traits guide decisions and
behavior
Situations guide decisions and
behavior

29. The Self and Culture
The compliments I most
frequently receive from
others……

30. Culture is Learned
 Identity
 Emotions
 Etiquette
 Values/Morals

31. Cultural Relativism

32. Sociocultural Influences: Media/Screen Time
Media and screen time play an important role in child and adolescent
development
• Screen time includes TV watching, DVDs, video games, computers, and mobile media
Media multitasking is increased
• Sometimes engaged with media at the same time as they are doing homework
Mobile media are driving increased media use by adolescents

33. Sociocultural Influences: Media/Screen Time
Positive effects of TV:
• Motivational educational programs, increasing information outside of the world
beyond the immediate environment, models of prosocial behavior
Negative effects of TV:
• Passive learning, homework distraction, stereotypes, violent models of aggression,
unrealistic view of the world
• Link to child and adolescent obesity

34. Sociocultural Influences: Media/Screen Time
Violent video games raise concerns about the effects on children and
adolescents
• Especially highly realistic video games
• Children and adolescents who extensively play violent video games may be more
aggressive and more likely to engage in delinquent acts
• However, question of causality
• Some critics argue that the effects have been overstated, and there has been too
little research conducted on positive outcomes

35. Sociocultural Influences: Media/Screen Time
Positive effects of video game playing:
• Prosocial video games promote prosocial child behavior
• Improves adolescent visuospatial skills
• Games requiring exercise have been linked to weight loss in overweight adolescents

36. Sociocultural Influences: Media/Screen Time
Effects of media/screen time depend on the child’s age and the type of
media involved
• Learning from media is difficult for infants and toddlers, who learn more easily from
direct experience
Preschool children can learn from media with educational material
• If effective strategies used
• If images and sounds are used to attract young children’s attention
• If children’s voices are used rather than adult voices

37. Sociocultural Influences: Media/Screen Time
American Academy of Pediatrics recommends no screens for children
under 2 years
Recent recommendation stated screen time should be limited for children
2 to 4 years of age
Negative association between children’s TV viewing and creativity
• Exception: when children watch educational TV content designed to teach creativity

38. Sociocultural Influences: Media/Screen Time
There has been a dramatic increase in adolescents’ use of social media
and text messaging
92% of adolescents report using social networking
sites daily
Text messaging has become the main way that adolescents connect with
friends
• Surpasses face-to-face contact, e-mail, instant messaging, and voice calls
• Special concerns is sexting, or sending sexually explicit images, videos, or text
messages

39. Sociocultural Influences: Media/Screen Time
Special concerns have emerged about children’s and adolescents’ access
to information on the Internet, which has been largely unregulated
Parents need to monitor and regulate adolescents’ use of Internet

40. Sociocultural Influences:
The Internet and Aging Adults
Internet plays an increasing role in providing access to information and
communication for adults as well
• In 2015, 58% of U.S. older adults reported they use the Internet; and it has often
become an integral part of their daily lives
Frequent computer use is related to higher cognitive performance in older
adults
Internet use is associated with greater ease in meeting new people, feeling
less isolated, and feeling more connected with friends and family

41. Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Socioeconomic status (SES): a grouping of people with similar
occupational, educational, and economic characteristics
• Differences in the ability to control resources and participate in society’s rewards
produce unequal opportunities for people
Parent’s SES is linked to neighborhoods in which children live and schools
they attend
• Influence on children’s adjustment

42. Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
In United States and other Western cultures, differences found in child
rearing among different SES groups
Low-SES parents:
• Concerned that children conform to society’s expectations
• Create a home atmosphere in which it is clear parents have authority over children
• Use physical punishment more in disciplining children
• More directive and less conversational with children

43. Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Higher-SES parents:
• Concerned with developing child’s initiative and ability to delay gratification
• Create home atmosphere in which children are nearly equal participants—rules are
discussed as opposed to being laid down
• Less likely to use physical punishment
• Less directive and more conversational with children

44. Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Children in poverty represent a special concern
• In 2014, 21.1% of U.S. children lived in families with incomes below the poverty line
• U.S. figures are much higher than other industrialized nations’
African American and Latino families have especially high rates of poverty
Ethnic minority children more likely to experience persistent poverty over
many years
• Live in isolated poor neighborhoods where social supports are lacking and threats to
positive development abound

45. Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Poverty has important psychological ramifications
• Poor children are often exposed to poor health conditions, inadequate housing and
homelessness, less effective schools, environmental toxins, and violence
• Poor are often powerless
• Poor are often vulnerable to disaster
• Alternatives for the poor are restricted
• Being poor means having less prestige

46. Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Persistent and long-standing poverty has especially damaging effects on
children
• Higher physiological stress
• Lower cognitive functioning
• Less effective executive functioning

47. Socioeconomic Status and Poverty
Special group of concern is poor older adults
• Poverty in late adulthood is linked to increased physical and mental health problems
• Lower levels of physical and cognitive fitness
• U.S. women ages 65 or older are much more likely to live in poverty than men
• Poverty rates among ethnic minorities are 2 to 3 times higher than among non-
Latino Whites

48. Focus on:
Sexual and Gender Identity
Sex Gender

49. Introduction to Terminology
Gender Roles – Behaviors, attitudes, and traits
designated as masculine or feminine in a culture -
based on gender stereotypes.

50. Introduction to Terminology
Gender Identity –
Psychological sense of being
male, female, a blend of both,
or neither
Sexual Orientation – Direction
of one’s emotional and erotic
attraction to opposite, same,
or both sexes

51. Gender Differences
Gender Differences due to:
 Gender Roles
 Gender Stereotypes

52. Gender Differences
Girls more likely to:
 Agree with person they
are talking to
 Offer praise
 Elaborate on other’s
comments
Boys more likely to:
 Assert their opinions
 Offer criticism
 Engage in aggression

53. Gender Differences

54. Gender Roles

55. Gender Roles
Developmental Intergroup Theory - Adults’ heavy focus on gender
leads children to:
 Use gender as a key source of information about themselves and others
 Seek out any possible gender differences
 Form rigid stereotypes based on gender

56. Gender Roles
Gender Schema Theory - Children actively organize others’ behavior,
activities, and attributes into gender categories, which are known
as schemas

57. Gender Roles
Social Learning Theory - Gender roles are learned through
reinforcement, punishment, and modeling

58. Gender Sexism & Socialization
Gender Discrimination –
Differential treatment based
on gender
Sexual Harassment –
Unwanted treatment related
to sexual behaviors or
appearance

59. Gender Sexism & Socialization

60. Gender Sexism & Socialization
Ambivalent Sexism - consists of two parts
Hostile Benevolent

61. Gender Sexism & Socialization

62. Sexuality
How did you learn about . . . ?
What was the quality of the information?
 Reproduction (fertility, pregnancy, childbirth)
 Sexually transmitted infections (eg. HPV, HIV, etc)
 Which sexual behaviors are normal (How commonly or
frequently people engage in various behaviors)
 Which sexual behaviors are appropriate (Which behaviors are
legally or morally acceptable)
 Sexual Consent

63. Sex Across History and Culture

64. What is Normal?: Biology

65. What is Normal?:
Across Cultures

66. What is Normal?:
Across Cultures

67. What is Normal?:
Across Cultures

68. Discussion
1. Attitudes toward sex outside of
marriage
2. Attitudes toward sex between
members of different religions
3. Attitudes toward same sex
relationships
4. Attitudes toward teenagers
having sex
What is Normal?:
Within Cultures

69. 1. Must be verbal 2. Must be voluntary (not pressured)
3. Must be mutual 4. Can be withdrawn
Consent

70. #MeToo
Consent