This document discusses the Vedic period and evidence related to the Aryan debate. It provides an overview of Vedic literature and classification. Key Vedic gods like Agni, Soma, Indra, Rudra, and Maruta are described. The Rakhihari genetic study from 2019 is summarized, which found that the ancient Harappan genome lacked ancestry from pastoralists or Iranian farmers, providing evidence against the Aryan invasion/migration theory. Archaeological evidence is examined in relation to dating the Vedic and Indus Valley periods.

1. BY
PRACHI VIRAG SONTAKKE
BA III SEM
UNIT II: VEDIC RELIGION

2. VEDIC PERIOD: GENERAL PARLANCE
• Generally believed to represent times immemorial.
• This affiliation on the basis of Vedas
• Vedas themselves were held ‘Apaurusheya’ .
• They were revelations from supreme power.
• Vedas basically represent an oral tradition: Shruti parampara
• So the period to which they belong was also held quite remote.
• But probably, the Vedas were written down in later period.

3. SO CALLED ARYAN INVASION
• Propounded by: Maxmuller. Initially supported by Wheeler also
• Destruction of Hariyupiya city
• Epithet of Indra as Purandhar
• Massacre at Harappa: presence of many unburied corpses found in the top
levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquest wars: NOT PROVEN BY
BONE STUDIES.
• The theory of an immigration of Aryan invasion is simply seen as a means of
British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent
colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local
darker colored population.
• Decline of Indus valley civilization by Aryan invaders no longer a valid theory.

4. ARYAN DEBATE
• Evidence
• Horse
• Chariots
• Race
• Use of metal
• Spoked wheel
• Evidence
• Archaeological
• Linguistics
• Genetics
• Literary
• Anthropological

5. RAKHIGARHI GENETIC STUDY
“An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or
Iranian Farmers” : published in the scientific journal Cell (September 5, 2019)

6. RAKHIGARHI DNA EVIDENCE
• The paper indicates that there was no Aryan invasion and no Aryan migration
and that all the developments right from the hunting-gathering stage to modern
times in South Asia were done by indigenous people.
• This individual is not only significantly different in ancestry from the primary
ancient populations of Bronze Age Gonur and Shahr-i-Sokhta but also does not
fall within the variation of present-day South Asians.
• The authors postulated the possibility that there was outward migration from
the IVC to Iran and Turkmenistan, as the 12 skeletal remains were seen as
belonging to the same cline

7. ANALYSING RAKHIGARHI EVIDENCE
• The authors seem to be aware that the IVC reveals a flourishing cosmopolitan urban
culture. The assumption that one individual would represent the whole population of
that city, and indeed the entire civilization, seems distinctly at odds with the
otherwise painstaking methodology and genetic analysis. At best, it may be
extrapolated from the data that a section of the population in Rakhigarhi (estimated
IVC population at its peak is about four to six million) had links with a section (only
11 of 44 match the type from Rakhigarhi) in the IPC.
• Conclusions derived on basis of just one type of evidence.
• These results are significant not because they are conclusive, or even convincing as
they stand, but because they reveal the complexity of social and cultural human
evolution in prehistoric times.

8. VEDIC PERIOD & ARCHAEOLOGY
• Bhagwan Singh: believes that period of
Indus Valley civilization was indeed Vedic
period.
• B.B.Lal sir agrees.
• Literary + Linguistic + Archaeological study.

9. INDUS VALLEY AND VEDIC PERIOD
• Similarities
• Geographical location
• Developed agriculture
• Worship of fire, Pashupati, Mother
goddess.
• Yajnas
• Funerary rites
• Horse?
• Metallurgical knowledge
• Mathematics and astronomy
• Administrative prowess
• Currency ?
• Dissimilarities
• Race?
• Chronology
• Nature of settlement
• State of Trade and commerce?
• Horse?
• Veneration of cow
• Matriarchy vs Patriarchy
• Weapons
• Use of metal?
• Spoked wheel?
• Script?

10. VEDIC PERIOD: ARCHAEOLOGICAL
CHRONOLOGY
Divided into
two periods
Early Vedic
period: 1500-
1100 BCE
Later Vedic
period: 1100-
800 BCE.
Bogaz Koi Inscription of 1400 BCE mentions names of Vedic
Gods.

11. VEDIC LITERATURE: GIST

12. VEDIC LITERATURE: CLASSIFICATION
Aiterey Aaranyaka Brahman
(in prose)
Upanishad Samhita
(in chhanda)
Rgveda Aitereya
Aaranyaka etc
Aitereya Brahman
Kaushutaki Brahman
etc
Aitereya Upanishad
Kaushutaki Upanishad
Aitereya
Samhita
Yajurveda Taitiriya,
Brihadaryanka
etc
Taitiriya Brahman
Shatpath Brahman
Taitiriya Upanishad,
Kathopanishad, Isha
Upanishad,
Brihadaryanka
Upanishad
Vajasneya
Samhita
Saamveda Talvakar
Aaranyaka
Panchvish Brahman
Kshadwish Brahman
etc
Chhandogya Upanishad
Ken Upanishad
-
Atharvaveda - Gopatha Brahman Mundakopanishad
Prashanopanishad

13. SOURCE: VEDAS
Vedas
Ritualistic
content
Related to
practise of
rites
Elaborate
Knowledge
content
Spiritual
philosophical
Limited

14. RGVEDIC
RELIGION
• Includes ritualistic, philosophical & cultural views of
Vedic sages.
• Reach of Dharam extensive.
• Society and life both governed by Dharma
• Huge Moralistic component : Rta
• Emphasis on self knowledge
• In Pursuit of a pure mind: Mind illuminates senses.
• Utilitarian and Pragmatic in approach
• This worldly in nature: prayers for long life, wealth,
sons.
• Based on hope and happiness for this life.
• Rituals to attain worldly pleasure
• Personification of nature: Due to regard, surprize &
fear

15. RGVEDIC GODS
• Etymologically Devata word comes from root div meaning light
• Gods were nature personified
• Gods had humanistic appearance: wore dresses, caps, ornaments.lived in palaces,
used chariots, carried weapons, enjoyed eating and drinking.
• Held certain common qualities/power & certain specific powers.
• Lack of individualistic identity amongst Gods: no clear cut outline
• All gods were kind and benevolent.
• They are moralistic in character.
• They maintain rta.
• They were not eternal but only had the boon of eternity.
• With time number of gods grew multifold.

16. NUMBER OF GODS
• Vedas: number vary from 1 to 6000.
• Rgveda: 33 Gods- 11 each on earth, sky & Universe. But doesn’t
name them.
• Shatpath Brahman: 8 vasu, 11 rudra, 12 Aditya, 1 Dyus, 1
Prithvi/Indra/Prajapati= adding up to 33.
• Yajurveda: 3331 Gods
• Atharvaveda: 33 Gods, 300 Gods, 6000 Gods
• Yaska: Only three main Gods- Agni on earth, Indra in Universe &
Surya in Sky.

17. NATURE OF GODS
Vedic Gods
Visible form
Comprehended by
eyes
Spiritual form
Can be realised by
knowledge

18. CLASSIFICATION OF GODS AS PER YASKA
Prithvi Sthaniya: Earth Gods- Agni, Soma, Brihaspati, Prithvi etc
Antiriksha Sthaniya: Universe Gods- Indra, Rudra, Maruta, Parjanya
etc
Aakash Sthaniya: Sky Gods- Surya, Mitra, Varuna, Vishnu, Savita etc.

19. PRITHVI STHANIYA: AGNI
• RV: 200 suktas dedicated to him.
• Most important God in Earth sphere.
• Messenger of Gods-knows all routes.
• Daily visitor of human homes.
• Called Vipra, Ritwij, Purohit,Gritmukha.
• Represents sacrificial fire: Held sacred.
• Importance gradually dwindles in
Later Vedic period.
Materail form Human form Animal form
Exists
everywhere
Son of Dyus &
Prithvi
Bull
Water-
Electricity
Has sharp
golden teeth
Horse
Clouds-
Thunder
Has seven
tongues
Bird
Stone-spark Eats wood and
ghee
Living beings-
Heat/energy

20. PRITHVI STHANIYA: SOMA
• RV: Nineth mandal of Rgveda called Pavmaan Soma is named after Soma.
• Imparts eternal youth and happiness.
• Importance as a God gradually dwindles in Later Vedic period.
Human form Vegetation form
Portrayed as a warrior Main component of Somayaag.
Rides with Indra on his chariot Seeds crushed to get reddish brown drink
Helps Indra in his exploits against Vrutra. Called King of all medicines
Energy booster
Disease killer
Increases mental prowess

21. PRITHVI STHANIYA: BRIHASPATI
• RV: 11 suktas refer to him.
• Master of Mind and Knowledge.
• Teacher of Gods.
• Also their Priest.
• Credited for his contribution in Victories of Gods.
• As a warrior, carries Bow-arrow, axe.
• Accompanies Indra in his fights
• Has his own Chariot.
• Rescues cows from thieves.

22. PRITHVI STHANIYA: PRITHVI
• Female deity.
• Worshipped in association with Dyus as Dhajaprithvi
• Only 1 sukta where revered alone.
• Bears the weight of the mountains, carries forests-medicines.
• Responsible for fertility of soil.
• Hidden treasures in her womb.

23. ANTARIKSHA STHANIYA: INDRA
• RV: 250 suktas dedicated to him.
• Most glorious God in Rgveda.
• Called Purandar, Purbhit, Shatkritu etc.
• Owns Vajra.
• Importance gradually dwindles in
Later Vedic period.
God of rain
Commander of God’s armies
Destroyer of demons
Able administrator
Establisher of Yajnas
Loves drinking somarasa

24. INDRA
Rasanupradaan
• Brings rain on earth
Vrita Vadh
• Kills demon Vrita who enslaved the rivers
Bal kriti
• Powerful works such as letting rivers flow
Yaska: Three main attributes of Indra
Helped by Mitra, Maruta, Soma, Brihaspati in his
endeavours

25. ANTARIKSHA STHANIYA: RUDRA
• Minor god in Rgvedic period.
• Only 3 suktas dedicated to Rudra in Rgveda.
• Becomes an important God in Later Vedic times.
• 3 forms:
Sensory form Human form Animal form
Yajurveda: 10 senses and
one heart
Brown in color, beautiful lips,
curly hair
Rgveda:Varaha
(Boar)
Ornament wearer, chariot
rider, bow-arrow wielder,
carries vajra.
Rgveda: Bull

26. ANTARIKSHA STHANIYA: RUDRA
• Rudra is Father of Maruta.
• Known as unconquerable, young & speedy God.
• Brihadaranyak Upanishad: Called Rudra as relatives cry (Rudan) when Rudra
leaves body.
• Called Pinaaki-Holder of bow Pinaak.
• Yajurveda: called Pashupati, Shiva, Shankar, Shambhu, Triyambakam,
Kapardi.
• Atharvaveda: called Sharva, Yam, Mrityu, Neelkantha, Pashupati.
• Worship to safeguard worshipper from Rudra’s anger.
• Prayers to not harm cattle, horses and family.
• But traces of his benevolence too.

27. ANTARIKSHA STHANIYA: RUDRA
• Atharvaveda & Yajurveda: Great Warrior & Commander.
• Called divine Physician.
• Carries Pinaka Bow shooting 1000 arrows
• Has power to ward off diseases: encourages warriors by medicines.
• Yajurveda: has three powers- Triyambakam
Creator
Sustainer
Destroyer

28. ANTARIKSHA STHANIYA: MARUTA
• Identified as Vaayudeva : Personification of Wind
• Duality of power: Benevolent cool wind; ferocious windstorm
Power of electricity & magnetism
• Son of Rudra
• Referred to in plural.
• Number of Maruta: Sapta-Sapta? ( 7+7=14 or 7 X 7= 49)
• Posses eternal youth. Wear golden clothes, cap & ornaments.
• Brave victorious warriors laced with weapons.
• Help Indra in his exploits.
• Also a good singer
• Enjoys drinking Soma

29. VARUN
• 2 dozen hymns: some joint hymns
• Number of Hymns dedicated to him not a successful criteria to exalt his character.
• In marked contrast with Indra, Varuna has no myths related of him, while much is said
about him (and Mitra) as upholder of physical and moral order.
• Represented as a fair, bald, yellow-eyed old man.
• Personality developed on moral side rather than physical side.
• Descriptions of his person and equipment's are scarce
• The only part of Varuna’s equipment which is at all prominent is his chariot.
• Varuna embraces the All and the abodes of all beings. The three heavens and the three
earths are deposited in him . He is omniscient. He knows the flight of birds in the sky, the
path of ships in the ocean, the course of the far- travelling wind, and beholds all the secret
things that have been or shall be done

30. AKASH STHANIYA: VARUN
• God of justice: Protector of Rta.
• Called Rtasya Gopa(One who knows the secret of Rta), Maya sukritu (One who does
good deeds), Vishwatashchakshu (all seeing), Dharmapati (Upholder of Dharama),
Samraat.
• Has a mansion with 1000 columns, 1000 doors
• Can take away or prolong life.
• Varuna has a hundred, a thousand remedies.
• Drives away death as well as releases from sin
• Shares a close bond with Mitra.
• His importance gradually decreased in Later Vedic period when more emphasis was
on rituals than moral behaviour.

31. VARUN’S WATCH OVER HUMANS
• Dispeller, hater, and punisher of falsehood.
• His wrath is roused by sin, the infringement of his ordinances, which he severely punished.
• His capable messengers daily report him about transgressions from Dharma.
• He sees all and everything: Knows even the secret ideas, talks & deeds.
• The fetters (pasah) with which he binds sinners, are often mentioned.
• Three nooses to punish the sinners- Uttam paash,Madhyam paash,Adham paash.
• They afflict with disease those who neglect their worship.
• Is gracious to the penitent.
• There is in fact no hymn to Varuna in which the prayer for forgiveness of guilt does not occur,
as in the hymns to other deities the prayer for worldly goods.
• Can’t be pleased only by performance of Yajnas.
• Three ways to escape his fury- Truthful thoughts, Truthful behaviour, moralistic living.

32. AKASH STHANIYA: VISHNU
• Visnu, though a deity of capital importance in the mythology of the Brahmanas, occupies but
a subordinate position in the RV.
• Called Brihat Shareer: Has a huge physical form
• Rgveda: Even birds can’t fly to the abode of Vishnu.
• Vishnu adores his worshippers: Comes to their aid when they call him.
• Is benevolent and kind protector.
• Yaska: ‘Whatever it is, Vishnu strides over it’
• Extolled for his three strides
• Tripaada: measures (earth, sky, air/ rise, culmination, setting of sun) in three footsteps.
• The feat gave rise to the myth of Vaman incarnation and Vishnupada (Vishnu’s foot exalted)
• ‘Narayana mentioned into 2 hymns of Shatapath Brahman.
• Narayana gained transcendence and imminence after performing Pancharatra

33. AKASH STHANIYA: SURYA
• Rgveda: 10 suktas refer to him.
• Most concrete of the solar deities.
• His father is Dyaus
• Gives light and dispels darkness.
• Owns a chariot run by seven horses.
• Reports to Varun about deeds of humans.
• Dispels laziness, ends nightmares, prevents diseases.
• Imparts fresh energy and vigour.
• Aroused by Surya, men pursue their objects and perform their work.
• Surya’s path is prepared for him by Varuna or by the Adityas Mitra, Varuna,
Aryaman.
• Pusan is his messenger.

34. AKASH STHANIYA: MITRA
• Representative of life power of Sun.
• Called Aaditya: son of Aditi
• Worshipped in association with Varun, Agni, Vishnu, Savitr
• Only 1 sukta where Mitra is referred to alone.
• Regulates all the rules.
• Peace loving, cherished by all.
• Mitra has been so closely assimilated to the greater god that he has hardly an
independent trait left.
• Mitra must have lost his individuality through the predominant characteristics of the
god with whom he is almost invariably associated.
• Supports heaven and earth, the five tribes of men obey him and he sustains all the
gods.

35. ORIGIN OF GODS
• The origin of the gods is mostly connected with the element of water.
• AV. (10, 7 25 ): Said to have arisen from the non-existent.
• Gods are created from Rta
• AV(10, 63 2): A triple origin, apparently corresponding to the triple division of the
universe, is ascribed to the gods, when they are said to have been born from Aditi, from
the waters, from the earth.
• Certain individual gods are spoken of as having begotten others.
• AV: Some gods are spoken of as fathers, others as sons
• Thus the Dawn is called the mother of the gods & Soma is said to be their father.
• Gods, in general, described as the children of Heaven and Earth.
• Immortality was bestowed on Gods by Savitr, Agni and also by drinking Soma.

36. DEVELOPMENT OF THEOLOGY
A religious growth of many centuries cannot be a simple & transparent creed
admitting easy definition & classification.
Polytheism: Numerous Gods with no one in particular supreme.
Monothesim: Simpler & logical than numerous Gods. Hiranyaprajapati supreme
over all Gods. But one supreme God is not the denial of other Gods.
Henothism: Maxmuller- worshipping of each divinity in turn as if it were the
greatest & supreme.
Monoism: Absolute, omnipresent, eternal, formless power manifested in all
beings. From it all flows and to it all returns. Outer appearances differ but
essence of all beings is same. Reality is one, learned call it by various names
(Ekam Sat, Viprah Bahudha vadanti).

37. RGVEDIC SACRIFICES
• Rgveda: Vedas, Jowar & four legged beings created by Yajna.
• Purushsukta of Rgveda: World originated by way of Yajna.
• Rain occurs due to yajna.
• Probably, Yajna represented a cyclical process establishing natural balance.
• Ritualistically, Simple and fuzz free.
• Focus on devotion more than ritualistic performances.
• Yajnas could be conducted by Grihpati (house holder)
• No special need for priest to conduct Yajnas.
• Were performed daily: Agni is the regular visitor of human homes.
• Importance of Yajna significantly increases in later Vedic period.
• Later parts of Rgveda: One who does not believe in Yajna is born as crow, vulture and dog in
his next birth.

38. CONCEPT OF RTA
• Meaning: The course of things : True eternal power: Param Brahma
• S.Radhakrishnan: Rta denotes Law and Justice.
• Macdowell: Order in the mortal world.
• It is permanent reality which remains unchanged.
• Rta was created first during the time of creation & existed before everything.
• It represents the essence of world order and systemic balance.
• It establishes equality in place of inequality, peace instead of disturbance.
• Gods are created from Rta and also maintain Rta.
• E.g. Soma originated and grew by Rta, Surya expands Rta, Rivers carry Rta.
• Varun is called Rtasya gopa: He is the custodian of Rta.
• Even Gods can’t transgress Rta.

39. AFTERLIFE BELIEFS
• Too much concerned with this worldly life.
• Prayers to lead a happy, content and peaceful life.
• S.Radhakrishnan: Rgvedic People were not much interested in after life.
• Ideas about heaven and hell.
• No special doctrines. Just some vague conceptions.
• RV.10.14-18: Notions regarding death and afterlife.
• RV.10.16: Go to the netherworld (Yamlok) and reside in company of ancestors &
Yam and obtain a beautiful body and a good house on the basis of your Punya
• Concept of reward and punishment in afterlife based on ones actions?
• Yam was the first to discover the route to Pitraloka.

40. FUNERARY BELIEFS
• Tenth Mandal provides hymns related to funerary rites.
• 2 types of burials referred to – Agnidaah and Anagnidaah.
• Separate mantras for both practices.
• Agnidaah: Tradition of cremation – popular- Agni takes one to heaven.
• Anaagnidaah: Burying of dead -‘Just as a mother covers her child with clothes,
O earth, cover this dead body too’