THe vedic Period

1. 1
The Vedic Period
Chapter Themes
1. The Indo–Aryans in the Sapta – Sindhu and Gangetic Valley
2. Vedic literature
3. Early Vedic Age
4. Later Vedic Age
5. Gurukul System
6. Economic Life
We come to know about the lives & beliefs of the people in the Vedic period from the literary
sources known as the Vedas or Vedic Samhitas.
Other Vedic writings also mention the Ashvamedha ritual, in which a king released a horse to claim
the territory where it roamed. The above given picture of 19th
century CE (Common Era) painting
depicts this.
A new culture developed in the Indian subcontinent after the decline of the Harappan civilisation,
with the coming of the Indo-Aryans. This culture is known as the Vedic culture. For many years,
Vedic literature constituted the sole source of information about this culture. In recent times,
archaeology has added to our knowledge about the Vedic culture.
The period during which the Vedic culture flourished is also known as the Vedic Age. The term
‘Vedic’ is derived from the ancient texts called the Vedas, on the basis of which the history of the
period has been largely written.
THE INDO-ARYANS
Some historians argue that the Indo-Aryans originated from among a group of people in Central Asia,
who spoke Indo-European languages. When the population of people who spoke Indo-European
languages increased, a group of people were forced to migrate from Central Asia. This group of
people, which entered India, came to be called the Indo-Aryans.
The Indo-Aryans spoke an ancient form of Sanskrit, and had common cultural practices. In fact, the
term Indo-Aryan is derived from the word,arya, which means ‘kinsman’.

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These Indo-Aryans first settled in ‘the land of seven rivers’ in the Punjab region, also known as Sapta-
Sindhu.
VEDIC LITERATURE
The Vedas are the main source of information on the political, social, economic, religious and
cultural life of the people of the Vedic period. The word ‘Veda’ means ‘knowledge’, and Vedic
literature truly reflects the wisdom of the Indo-Aryan people.
There are four Vedas- Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. The Rig Veda is the oldest
among them. It consists of 1,028 hymns divided into parts or mandalas.
The Vedas were initially verbal compositions that were handed down from generations to
generation for several hundred years. The first compilation of the Rig Veda probably occurred in c.
1000 BCE.
The Brahmanas, the Upanishads, and the Aranyakas are other literary sources of this period.
Upanishads include the thoughts of thinkers, who sought to find answers for philosophical
questions. They felt that the universe comprised something permanent that even death could not
end. The individual soul, atman, and the universal soul, brahman, together formed this
‘permanence’.
The epics, namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, also provide information about the Vedic
age.
The epic Mahabharata tells us about a war fought between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. This
battle between the cousins was fought to gain control over the Kuru kingdom and its capital at
Hastinapur. The story is thousands of years old, but it was written down about 1500 years ago. Vyasa
is credited with the compilation of the Mahabharata.
Ramayana tells us the story of the prince of Kosala, Rama. He was sent into exile. Ravana, the king of
Lanka, abducted Rama’s wife Sita. Rama fought a battle with Ravana to bring back Sita. After his
LIFE SKILLS: UNDERSTANDING
Think of the reasons that might have prompted the Indo-Aryans to migrate from Central Asia.
What difficulties would they have faced during the migration and settlement?
Early and Later Vedic Cultures

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victory over Ravana, Rama returned to the capital of Kosala, Ayodhya. Valmiki is said to be the
author of the epic Ramayana.
BRAHMAVARTA (EARLY VEDIC AGE)
The Vedic period has been divided into two – the Early Vedic Age and the Later Vedic Age. The
period between c. 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE is known as the Early Vedic Age. The Early Vedic Age is
also associated with the land known as Brahmavarta that lay around the river Saraswati. The history
of India during this period is known mainly through the Rig Veda, which was composed
approximately during this time. Let us study about life during the Early Vedic Age.
Political Life
The smallest unit of the political and social organisations was kula or griha (family). A group of
families formed the grama (village) headed by the gramani (village headman). A group of several
clans (called vish) was known as the jana (tribe). In the Early Vedic Age, the rajan (chieftain) of the
jana was responsible for protecting his people. He was also required to guide them to victory in a
war. The rajan was assisted by the senani (the army chief) and the (the priest) in administration and
during war.
The Rig Veda also mentions assemblies such as the sabha and the samiti, which resolved disputes
among tribesmen and decided upon possession of resources. The sabha was made up of important
members of the tribe and the samiti included all members of the tribe.
Comparative History
Homer’s Odyssey and Iliad
While the Later Vedic developments took place in the Indian subcontinent, two major epic
poems were composed in ancient Greece between c. 750 and 650 BCE. Through these epics are
attributed to the author Homer, nothing much is known about him. The epic Odyssey describes
the adventures of Odysseus, a Greek hero returning home after the fall of the city of Troy. The
end of Trojan War and the activities of the Greek hero Achilles are recounted in the epic Iliad.
A page from the manuscript of
Odyssey dated around the 15th
century CE
Lines from the Iliad from a late 5th
and
early 6th
century CE
manuscriptmanuscript

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Social Life
Family was the basis of society. Early Vedic society was patriarchal in nature. The oldest living male
member was the head of the family. He was called the kulapa or the grihapati. The Vedas lay stress
on the sanctity of marriage and family life. Women enjoyed a respectable position in the Early Vedic
society. However, wives were less important than their husbands. In spite of this, there is an
instance of five women who composed hymns.
Classification of Society
The Early Vedic society was divided on the basis of the skill or the type of work the people did.
The division of society on the basis of occupation in the Early Vedic period was flexible. However,
this system became rigid in the Later Vedic period and the caste of a person began to be determined
by birth.
Food: The Vedic people ate barley, wheat, maize, milk, ghee, fruits, vegetables, and meat.
Intoxicating drinks such as soma (juice of soma plant) and sura (prepared from fermented grain)
were also consumed and offered to the gods.
Dress and Ornaments: Men and women wore garments made of cotton and wool. Both men and
women wore different kinds of ornaments such as earrings, necklaces and bangles. Shoes made of
leather and wood were also used.
Recreation: Chariot racing, horse racing and hunting were favourite pastimes. Both men and women
played games with dice. They also enjoyed music and dance, and played instruments such as the
veena.
Economic Life
In the beginning, the Indo-Aryans were nomads who moved from one place to another. Cattle
rearing and cattle farming were their major occupations. Cattle, horses, sheep, goats and asses were
reared. The cow was a mark of wealth, and considered very valuable. The king and wealthy people
gifted cows to priests.
As the Vedic people settled down, agriculture became an important occupation. They used wooden
ploughs for agriculture. Farmers had knowledge of different seasons and their effect on agriculture.
People developed the art of weaving, carpentry, chariot-making and metal work.
Religion
In the Early VedicAge, the people worshipped the forces of nature as gods and goddesses. Indra, the
god of thunder and rain, was the most important. Agni-the god of fire, Surya-the Sun god, Varuna-
the god of water, Vayu-the god of wind, Soma-the god of plants, Prithvi-the Earth-god, Yama-the
god of death and Usha-the goddess of dawn, were important gods.
Yagnas or sacrifies were common rituals. Since gods had no definite shape, there were no statues
and temples. The mode of worship was performance of sacrifies, which included chanting of the Rig
Vedic hymns, and making offerings of grain, ghee and milk. Priests conducted the rituals. People
prayed for good health, cattle and for the birth of sons.

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Aryavarta( Later Vedic Age)
ARYAVARTA (LATER VEDIC AGE)
The Indo-Aryans gradually moved further eastwards and settled in the Gangetic Valley. The enrire
region under their control came to be called Aryavarta, which means ‘the land of the Aryans’. This
settlement took place in what is known as the Later Vedic Age which lasted from c. 1000 BCE to 600
BCE. Let us read on to find out about life in the Later Vedic Age.
Political Life
Political Life
In the Later Vedic period, tribal units expanded to form kingdoms. The position of the chieftain
became stronger. He gradually tried to assume the powers of a monarch. The role and character of
the sabha and samiti changed. Kingship gradually became hereditary. The kings were in charge of
defence and maintaining law and order in their kingdoms. They tried to extend their territories. As a
result, frequent wars were fought.
The kings also performed several yagnas or sacrifies. When a king ascended the throne, the
rajasuyayagnawas performed. After this yagna, the king had supreme powers in the area. Another
important yagna was the ashvamedhayagna, which was performed by powerful kings to establish
their supremacy over lands.
Social Life
The family remained the basic unit of society. The father was the head of the family. The joint family
system was quite common. The position of women appears to have declined. Women were
expected to serve their husbands and look after the family.
Yagnas as conducted in the Vedic Age
continue to be performed today.
A panel from a later period depicting a yagna being
performed

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The Varna System
The division of society on the basis of occupation in the Early Vedic period led to the development of
four classes or varnas.
 Brahmanas were the educated priests, who specialised in preserving sacred texts and
carrying out various types of religious rituals. They also imparted education.
 Kshatriyas were in charge of protection and administration of the land.
 Vaishyas were traders, craftspersons and farmers.
 Shudras were the labourers forming the lowest rung of the Vedic society, and were meant
to serve the three upper classes.
The varna system during the Later Vedic period took a more rigid form and was hereditary. The four-
fold caste system with the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas enjoying high position in society, the
Vaishyas in the middle, and the Shudras at the lowest position was prevalent. Inter-varna marriages
were forbidden.
VALUE: PERCEPTION
Do you think that traces of the caste system still exist in India? Give reasons for your answer.
DEBATE AND DISCUSSION
Read the lines below and hold a discussion on the question that follows.
Successfully let the ploughshares thrust apart the earth; successfully let the ploughmen follow the
beasts of draft...... Successfully let the draftanimals, successfully the men, successfully let the plough,
plough......
-Atharva Veda, 3.17.3-6, translated by WD Whitney
What does this quote from ATHARVAVEDA tell us about the concerns of people in the Later Vedic
Age? Discuss.
 A Kshatriya, Brahmana, Vaishya and Shudra respectively, as depicted in Seventy-two Specimens of
Castes in India (a manuscript from 19
th
century CE)

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The Four Ashramas of Life
According to the texts of the Later Vedic Age, the life of an individual of an upper class was divided in
to three stages called ashramas. Different duties were assigned to these stages. The fourth ashrama
is mentioned in the post-Vedic texts, though it did exist in theLater Vedic period.
The Four Ashramas
Brahmacharya (student) A young man stayed in the gurulul and received
education.
Grihastha (householder) A man got married and led a family life, fulfilling
worldly interests and duties.
Vanaprastha(hermitage) A man gave up his materialistic worldly life and
stayed in the forest and practised meditation,
contemplation and prayer to focus on inner
spirituality.
Sanyasa (renunciation) A man retreated from all worldly desires, seeking
only spiritual goals.
Education
Education was limited to the upper classes. A remarkable feature of the Vedic education was the
gurukul system. In this system, boys lived in the guru’s ashrama from the age of 7 to 25. They learnt
philosophy, art, logic, religion, grammar, medicine and moral codes of conduct such as obedience
and respect for the teachers. The gurus did not charge any fee for the education. At the end of their
training, the disciples thanked their gurus with a gift called guru dakshina, which means offerings to
the guru.
Connecting Past with Present
ThenThegurukuls were situated in the middle of dense forests. The teacher treated the students like his
own children, and they regarded him as a spiritual father. Students led disciplined lives. They worked in
the house, as well as in the fields. Housework included cleaning the house and drawing water from the
well. Lessons were learnt orally.
Now in 1901, Rabindranath Tagore started a school at Shantiniketan named BramhacharyaAshrama that
was modelled on the lines of ancient gurukul system. Later, renamed PathaBhavana, the school
continues to abide by Tagore’s ideals and the central premise that learning in a natural environment is
more enjoyable and fruitful.
How is your school different from the gurukulsystem? Do you know of other schools in India that
observe such alternative methods of schooling?
LIFE SKILLS: ANALYSIS

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Occupations
Agriculture was the chief occupation of the Later Vedic people. The use of iron was initiated during
this period. Iron ploughs were also used. Another improvement in agriculture was adding manure to
fields. It increased the yield and resulted in surplus production. Barley, wheat and rice were
produced. Cattle rearing continued.
Coppersmiths produced war weapons and ornaments. Ironsmiths produced arrowheads and
spearheads. Weavers, leather workers, carpenters, chariot- makers and jewellers lived in the
villages. People in the Later Vedic period usedPainted Grey Ware pottery. Such vessels have been
found in many parts of north India.
Religion
Many changes occurred in the field of religion. In the Later Vedic period Prajapati(latter known as
Brahma) became an important god. Complicated prayers, elaborate rituals and sacrifices became
more important in worshipping the gods. Religion became ritualistic and expensive. The brahmanas
gained power and rose in prominence as only they were allowed to perform rituals.
Gurukul System Later and Now
 A painting showing the gurukul system of
education.
 Students attending class in the open air at
Shantiniketan.

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‘Benares is older than history older than tradition, older even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of
them put together’- Mark Twain.
Introduction: Varanasi, also known as Kashi or Benaras, is one of the oldest living cities in the
world. This means that it is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Studying
the varied aspects of this city helps in attaining a better understanding of the evolution of history
and culture near a river bank over a long period of time.
Geographical location: Varanasi is located in present-day Uttar Pradesh. It is situated on the left
bank of Ganga River. The river Ganga has played a lead role in the settlement, development and
continuity of lives and livelihood in Varanasi.
Sources: Literary and archaeological sources let us know about the different periods of the history
of Varanasi. The Chinese traveller Hsuan-tsang who visited Varanasi in the 7th
century CE noted
that the city extended for 5 km, and was situated on the western bank of the Ganga River. We also
get to know about Varanasi from the Puranas, Asthadhyayi of Panini, the Mahabharata and the
various writings on the city during the time of the British.
A Brief History: Varanasi had become an important commercial and industrial centre in antiquity.
It was famous for its silk and muslin fabrics, perfumes, ivory works and sculpture. During the
time of the Buddha (6th
century BCE), Varanasi was the capital of the kingdom of Kashi. The
Chinese traveller Hsuan-tsang visited Varanasi in the 7th
century CE. The city of Varanasi
thrived under the rule of Akbar during the medieval period. The Marathas during the late
medieval period also contributed to the development of the city of Varanasi. The British
documented a thriving ancient city through numerous sketches and articles in scholarly journals.
Present-day Varanasi: Varanasi is a thriving spiritual centre that attracts pilgrims and tourists
from all over the world. The ghats of the Ganga River at Varanasi are used for religious bathing.
The older parts of Varanasi have narrow roads and old buildings. The city is home to many
temples that are visited by millions of people every year.
The Vishvanatha, Sankatmochana and Durga Temples are the important sites in the city. At
Sarnath, a few miles noth of Varanasi, there are ruins of ancient Buddhist monasteries and
temples. Temples built by the Maha Bodhi Society and by the Chinese, Burmese and Tibetan
Buddhists are also located here.
Varanasi is famous for its production of silk and brocade sarees with gold and silver thread work.
These sarees are popularly known as Benarasisarees. The city is also home to the Banaras Hindu
University, one of the major universities of India.
Websites for further information: http://varanasi.nic.in/,
https://www.britannica.com/place/Varanasi
VARANASI
Oldest Living City Along the Bank of a River
The river bank along the Ganga River

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Comparison between the Early and Later Vedic Ages
Political Social Religious
Early Vedic Age  The rajan was the
chief of the jana
(tribe).
 He was aided by the
tribal assembly
called the samiti.
 Sabha was another
important clan-
based assembly.
 The rajan was also
assisted by the
purohita (priest) and
senani (military
officer).
 Jana (tribe) was
primary to social life
of the people.
 Family was indicated
through the term
‘griha’.
 Families were largely
patriarchal, though
women had an
important role in the
society.
 Gods were based
on natural forces
such as rains, the
sun, the moon,
rivers and so on.
 Natural forces were
personified.
Later Vedic Age  Royal power
increased over
popular assemblies.
 Nobles and
Brahmanas
dominated the
sabha.
 Tribal authority
became territorial.
 Society was divided
into four varnas,
namely, Brahmanas,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras.
 Kshatriyas and
Brahmanas were the
most powerful.
 Rituals and sacrifice
became important.
 Prajapati (the
creator god)
became important.
 Priests also gained
prominence.